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BY THE AUTHOR
Dr. W. Robert Cook, Th.D
Jerusalem the golden,
With milk and honey blest,
Beneath my contemplation
Sink heart end voice oppressed:
I know not, 0 I know not
What social joys are there,
What radiancy of glory,
What light beyond compare.
0 sweet and blessed country,
The hone of God's elect!
0 sweet and blessed country,
That eager hearts expect!
Jesus, in mercy brings us
To that dear land of rest,
Who art, with God the Father
And Spirit, ever blest.
Bernard of Cluny (12th century)
As the provident God Yahweh has always been sovereign over all things in the universe. As the delivering God he has been sovereign over the redeemed. Thus, throughout history God's purposes have unfolded around a kingdom within a kingdom both of which have been more covert than overt. His aim has been to extend the sphere of his sovereignty throughout the universe in a manifest way so that he is openly confessed as God of all. This manifestation will begin with the advent of the King of kings in glory as he establishes the messianic form of the kingdom. As the thousand year reign comes to its climax several events will mark the end of the beginning (i.e., the end of man's history as related to the present heaven and earth) and will announce the beginning of the eternal form of the kingdom of God.
I. Transitional Events
Before the eternal state begins there are several matters of "unfinished business" relating to the present order of things" with which God will deal.
A. Events Related to the Judgment of the Old Order
The fall of angels and mankind marred God's original creation in several ways. These blemishes must be finally judged before God is all in all.
1. The final defeat of Satan (Rev. 20:7-20)
A part of God's design for the future is that at the close of the millennial reign of Christ Satan will be released from his imprisonment in the abyss “for a short time” (Rev. 20:3). The fact that this is a part of God's purpose is seen in the use of "must" (dei) in Revelation 20:3 and the use of the passive voice in the verb forms (luthēnai, v. 3; luthēsetai, v. 7). The obviously intended agent of the releasing is God.
a) The last rebellion (Rev. 20:7-9)
Among those born during the millennial reign of Christ will be a large number who will give feigned obedience only to the King. They will outwardly accept the benevolences of his righteous reign and a fruitful earth but will be rebels at heart awaiting a leader and a call to rebellion. Thus it will be demonstrated with dramatic clarity that Edenic conditions not only will not satisfy man, but also they do not make man what he should be.
Upon Satan's release vast numbers of unregenerate men and women will join him in an incredible attempt to destroy the saints, pull Messiah from his throne, and obliterate the name of God from the earth. Even the good things of God (improved environment, social and economic equity, righteous government, world-wide knowledge of God, the control of overt sin), offered throughout history by Satan as the best things of man, will not meet man's first and most basic need.
These rebels will be destroyed with fire from heaven, having " been deceived (planaō, cause to wander, lead astray; 20:8) by Satan into thinking his is a better way.
b) The death of Satan (Rev. 20:10; Matt. 25:41)
Beginning at the judgment of Satan at the cross (John 16:11), continuing on through his removal from access to God as "accuser of the brethren" in the middle of the tribulation (Rev. 12:7-10) and his confinement to the abyss for one thousand years (Rev. 20:1-3), and climaxing in his final consignment to the lake of fire, Satan finds the sphere of his control increasingly narrowed until he is finally cut off from all influence upon God's creation.
Finally, the great enemy of God and his people will be "dead," separated from all that is good and in torment forever and ever in the lake of fire which is the second death.
2. The dissolution of the present heaven and earth (Matt. 24:35; Mark 13:31; Luke 21:33; Rom. 8:19-22: Heb. 1:10-12, cf. Ps. 102:25-27; Heb. 12:26-27; 2 Pet. 3:7, 10-12; Rev. 20:11: 21:1)
As a result of the fall the natural creation was affected by the curse (Gen. 3:17-18). Paul indicates that the creation will one day be set free from its slavery to corruption.
This freeing will come by way of a cataclysmic judgment variously described on the one hand, by terms which suggest utter destruction ("pass away," suggesting transiency as opposed 'to the permanence of our Lord's words, Matt. 24:35; "perish," in contrast to him who will remain, Heb. 1:11; "destroyed by burning" and "melt by burning," 2 Pet. 3:10-11) and, on the other hand, by terms which suggest change with continuity (“set free from slavery” and “pains of childbirth" seem to suggest some relationship between present and future, Rom. 8:21-22; "be changed" suggests transformation, Heb. 1:12).
The passing away of the present order is described as a "becoming old," signifying a reaching of a state of being out-worn; whereas, the new order which will replace the old is said to be kainē, that is fresh and unused, rather than neos, new in time of origin (Heb. 1:11; Rev. 21:1).
A collation of this data, together with the express statements of Psalm 104:5 and Ecclesiastes 1:4 regarding the permanence of the earth, would seem to teach that there will be a drastic purging, melting down, and reordering of the "stuff" of the present order which is, in turn, refashioned into a new heaven and earth.
There will not be a new creative act of God ex nihilo as in the beginning, but a dramatic change with continuity much like he will do with our present bodies as they become glorious resurrection bodies.
It should not be overlooked that a part of this transformation involves the attendant circumstances of a fallen material creation, too. As the first heaven and earth pass away (Rev. 21:1) so the first things associated therewith, namely sorrow, death, mourning, crying, and pain will likewise pass away (Rev. 21:4).
Although no mention is made of it, we must assume that believers living on the earth at this time will be translated and glorified as earlier saints will be (1 Cor. 15:50-52).
3. The Great White Throne Judgment (Rev. 20:11-15)
An area of perennial disagreement between premillennialists and all others is whether the final judgment is a single event, relating to the wicked dead only, or a multiple event wherein the righteous and wicked alike are judged. Passages such as John 5:28-29 and Romans 2:5-11 seem to relate both groups to a common resurrection and judgment while Revelation 20:4-5 seem to separate the resurrection of the two groups and thus call for separate judgments.
Perhaps the solution to this apparent dilemma lies in yet a third way to harmonize this data. It is quite clear that this judgment (Rev. 20:11-15) is the event, from a moral standpoint, at which the final destiny those being judged is announced.
Also, as the entire New Testament bears witness, the determination of eternal destiny is made in this life, not at some future judgment day, on the basis of one's relationship with Jesus Christ (John 3:18, 36; 5:24). If, then, this judgment is a matter of public declaration of destiny it is understandable why on occasion it would be viewed as relating to both groups. An announcement regarding either group must of necessity involve the other.
By the same token, it is not surprising that one group is the focal point in this passage (Rev. 20:11-15) since the destiny of the righteous is dealt with extensively in Revelation 21 and 22. There is no question that the righteous and wicked will be eternally separated and that God will make blessed provision for the righteous (see John 14:1-3, for example).
The only remaining question, then, is the eternal abode of the wicked. Thus, neither group should be excluded from the significance of this event, but the emphasis seems to be given to the public declaration regarding the destiny of the unbelieving.
a) Who is the Judge?
While Scripture gives general statements about God being "the judge of all" (Heb. 12:23) there are many specific declarations that the Father has appointed his Son to discharge this function (John 5:22, 27; Acts 10:42; 17:31; 2 Tim. 4:1). The purpose for this is that all may honor the Son as they do the Father (John 5:23) and the reason is because he is the Son of Man (John 5:27; in light of Daniel 7:13-14 this seems to be a clearly messianic title, cf. Matt. 26:64, and one of Messiah's tasks will be that of judge as seen in Rev. 1:13ff.; 19:11ff.). Since the proof of his appointment is his resurrection from the dead (Acts 17:31), it appears that to be qualified for this responsibility one must be fully human, fully divine, and have conquered death.
b) Who is to be judged?
The group who are predominantly in view for this occasion are identified first in Revelation 20:5 as "the rest of the dead," that is, all others not included in the first resurrection who will be raised following the millennial period. This group is identified in John 5:29 as those raised to "judgment"; in Daniel 12:2 as those raised to "disgrace and everlasting contempt"; and in Acts 24:15 as the "unjust." These are the dead without regard to station or rank (Rev. 20:12).
c) On what basis are they judged?
Two lines of biblical revelation must be considered in answering this question. These are: eternal destiny is determined by one's relationship to Jesus Christ apart from works (Eph. 2:1-10; Titus 3:4-7); and, eternal destiny is demonstrated by one's works (Rom. 2:5-11; James 2:14- 26; Rev. 20:12-13). Both of these principles are brought to bear upon the dead who stand before the throne on this occasion.
Principle number one is related to the gospel message as committed to us today in light of the finished work of Christ. Actually, there is a larger truth involved. One's eternal destiny is determined by his relationship to the God of reality in light of his response to the revealed will of God at that given point in history.
(This principle was applied to Abraham in his day—"And Abraham believed God, and it was counted to him as righteousness," Romans 4:3, cf. Genesis 15:6; to the Israelites in Moses' day and in Jesus' day—"Do not think that I will accuse you before the Father; the one who accuses you is Moses, in whom you have set your hope.
For if you believed Moses, you would believe me; for he wrote of Me," John 5:45-46, cf. Deuteronomy 18:18-19; and to David and his contemporaries— "David also speaks of the blessing upon the man to whom God reckons righteousness apart from works: ... 'Blessed is the man whose sin the LORD will not take into account,'" Romans 4:6-8, cf. Psalm 32:1-2.
It is this same principle to which our Lord refers when he says, "He who rejects Me, and does not receive My sayings, has one who judges him; the word I spoke is what will judge him at the last day," John 12:48.)
This revelation of God's will obviously varied in the time prior to the first advent. The ultimate question is, did the individual believe God? Did he take God at his word? When this was done then, as with Abraham, it was counted to him for righteousness (see Gen. 15:6, cf. Rom. 4:3-8).
This principle is further highlighted by the two references in the passage to the book of life (Rev. 20:12, 15). The absence of one's name from the book of life will bring eternal punishment, whereas the presence of one's name therein assures access to the New Jerusalem (Rev. 21:27).
It is important to note that as the record is checked the name was either already there or not. Thus the execution of judgment rests upon a previously existing condition. Since this book is that of the slain Lamb and contains the birth records of all who have come to new life by receiving the benefits of his finished work, the absence of a name certifies a lost estate.
In other words, "As we study the final judgment, we should keep in mind that it is not intended to ascertain our spiritual condition or status, for that is already known to God. Rather, it will manifest or make our status public." [i]
There is another set of books mentioned as well (Rev. 20:12- 13). These books contain the divine record of human deeds. The repetition of "according to their works" emphasizes two things. "According to" (kata) indicates that it is the concept of standard that is being presented here while "their works" points to the standard itself.
By man's own standard, the substance of his own doing, an evaluation will be made. When these are laid along side of God's criterion (inclusion in the book of life) it is apparent that no matter how many or how good the deeds they are not enough to overcome the deficit.
B. Events Relating to the Establishment of the New Order
1. Creation of a new heaven and earth (Isa. 65:17-19; 66:22; 2 Pet. 3:13; Rev. 21:1)
One aspect of John's climactic vision is the sight of a new heaven and a new earth (Rev. 21:1). Thus is realized that about which Isaiah had prophesied (Isa. 65:17-19). He had said God would create a new order which would take the place of the old in the memory of the redeemed.
The focal point of this new order would be Jerusalem, also made new, whose inhabitants would rejoice in her and who would be a source of delight to God. In contrast to the present heaven and earth this new order will be characterized by righteousness (2 Pet. 3:13). The verb Peter uses (katoikeō) indicates that righteousness will be settled permanently in the new heaven and earth.
In addition to the clear reference in 2 Peter 3:13 to the new heavens and the new earth Peter is probably referring to the same thing when he states that the time is coming when God will "... send Jesus, the Christ appointed for you, whom heaven must receive until the period of restoration [apokatastasis] of all things about which God spoke by the mouth of His holy prophets from ancient time" (Acts 3:20-21).
The noun apokatastasis and its verbal equivalent apokathistēmi are used in Greek literature of the restoration of things to their former condition. Such a statement raises two questions: What is it to which "restoration of all things" refers; that is, is this a spiritual restoration of the lost or a physical restoration of the material universe?
If this is a physical restoration, does this imply that it is merely a renovation of the present order rather than a genuinely creative act?
The latter question was addressed earlier in the chapter where it was suggested that what is in view has enough continuity with the present order to be called a restoration or restitution, but that there is enough discontinuity to call it a creative act (but not ex nihilo). This would parallel the first creation wherein it could be said that God created man even though he used already existing materials in the process (Gen. 1:27; 2:7).
The first question is dealing with a far more substantial issue. A number of theologians in the history of the church, going back as far as Origen and as recently as Karl Barth and Nels F. S. Fere, have advocated some form of universalism in light of such a statement. Evangelicals, with few exceptions, have rejected this interpretation, opting instead for some non-soteriological restoration in the end times.
Bruce Demarest suggests that this refers to "the restoration of all that was proclaimed by the Old Testament prophets, e.g., conversion of the Jews, gathering of the elect, righteous reign of the Messiah on earth and creation of a new heaven and a new earth."[ii] Carl Henry, on the other hand, understands the Acts 3:21 statement to refer to the new heaven and earth only.
To interpret this restitution as 'a conversion of persons' rather than 'a reconstitution of things' is unnatural and unjustifiable, says Albrecht Oepke; what is in view is 'the reconstitution or establishment of things' which are to be 'restored, i.e. brought back to the integrity of creation' (on apokatastasis, in TDNT, 1:391)." [iii]
Both Demarest and Henry reject any form or salvific universalism with Henry stating that
... on any biblical basis opposition to a dual destiny for mankind is unconvincing. "In general," remarks Oepke of universal salvation, "such an idea is just as remote from the New Testament world of thought as the Jewish." [iv]
The apostle Paul, who "sometimes emphasizes so strongly the comprehensive saving work of the Second Adam as to give rise to the appearance of a final restoration of all" (cf. Rom. 5:18; 1 Cor. 15:22; Eph. 1:10; Col. 1: 20) emphasizes also that "judgment will have a twofold outcome" (Rom. 8:29; 9:11, 17; Eph. 1:4,11; etc.) and anticipates "the powerful overthrow of all opposition" (1 Cor. 15:25ff.).
“The main emphasis of the New Testament, adds Oepke, is not that all will be saved, but rather that few will be (Matt. 24:14; Luke l3:23 ff.; 1 Cor. 9:24ff.)." In the same context in which he speaks of the palingenesia, Jesus speaks also of the destruction of the wicked (Matt. 19:28); and Peter, on the same occasion that he speaks of the apokatastasis, speaks as well of the destruction of the impenitent (Acts 3:23).
Contrary to J. A. T. Robinson's emphasis, Christ's expiatory death does not automatically assure universal salvation, for the New Testament underscores the indispensability of personal repentance and faith in this life as a precondition for salvation in the life to come (John 3:3, 5; Heb. 9:27).” [v]
2. The deliverance of the kingdom to the Father (1 Cor. 15:24-28)
The final step in the transition from the messianic to the eternal form of the kingdom of God is the giving over of that intermediate form of the kingdom to God. Paul's choice of verbs is most significant in this passage (v." 24). Paradidōmi has the sense of restore here.
It is not as though Christ is losing something, but that he is voluntarily handing it over. He is returning to God that which was originally designed for him (cf., John 17:10).
At this point, all of God's enemies will have been subdued (l Cor. 15:25-26) and "his commission to restore authority in all spheres" will have been fulfilled. [vi] This in no way should be construed as a diminution of our Lord's deity or of his glory. The "subjection" described in 1 Corinthians 15:28 is economic not ontological. Again, the verb translated “will be subjected” (NASB) provides the clue.
It (hupotagēsetai) is passive in form but middle in meaning with a reflexive sense as used in this passage. [vii] Following Abbott-Smith we would translate "will subject himself" while Moulton would read "be subject" leaving the interpretive task to the exegete. Our judgment that this is middle in force despite its passive form is based upon two considerations.
First, the line of Paul's argument at this point in 1 Corinthians 15 (from v. 23 on through v. 27 Christ is clearly the one acting so it would follow that he will "subject himself" in v. 28) strongly suggest this interpretation.
Secondly, a similar usage of the same verb is found in Romans 10:3 and it is quite apparent that it is middle (reflexive) there. [viii]
As Ellisen points out, "the fact that the Son shall be subject to the Father does not suggest an inequality of the Son with the Father. Rather, it stresses the continuing unity of the Members of the Godhead..." [ix]
II. The Eternal Form of the Kingdom of God
A. The Final State of the Unbelieving
While the doctrine of the eternal punishment of the unbelieving has been the faith of mainstream orthodoxy from the beginning, there have been voices to the contrary as well. Origen taught that following death those who had rejected Christ would all eventually be saved. [x]
Some have rejected the concept of eternal punishment as being out of keeping with God's love. [xi]
While some contemporary theologians would say that on the basis of the universal character of God's reconciling work in Christ all mankind is now reconciled, although in some cases individuals are yet to realize this, others, such as Karl Rahner, would say that all men are already redeemed and that grace has already triumphed to save the world. [xii]
Probably the most elaborate development of neo-universalism is found in Karl Barth. He held that "the conversion (Um Kehr) of man to God has already been effected and that our responsibility is to become aware of who we really are—sons and daughters of God destined for salvation." [xiii]
Barth's view is based upon his understanding of the death of Christ as having actually redeemed all of humanity. "Jesus Christ was both the elected and the reprobate in that he suffered the consequences and penalty of sin in behalf of all. In him all people are elected, and reprobation has become an impossibility for all, since the judgment and hell that deserve to fall upon us instead fell upon him." [xiv]
Despite protestations to the contrary, however, we believe that the condition of the unbelieving at death, that is that they are lost, is final. Hell is a reality and there will be no second chance after death. [xv]
Although it may seem incongruous, this most sobering and terrifying of all realities is a part of the eternal kingdom of God. Rather than detracting from the glory of the city of God it will enhance it by contrast. It will provide the black backdrop against which the glory of the city will be displayed.
Even though this place of punishment will be completely separated from the New Jerusalem it will still be in the same universe as an eternal memorial of the sinfulness of sin, the holiness of God, and the marvel of elective and redemptive grace.
Rather than being an irrational anomaly or an embarrassing blotch on the landscape of eternity, hell will be an eloquent testimony to the fact that God's is an ultimately moral universe. As Bloesch most aptly says
The eschaton might be likened to a great orchestral composition which contains chords that are dissonant when taken only by themselves but which, nevertheless, contribute to an overall harmony.... [Hell] is created for those who have deserved it, and therefore it reminds us that we are living in a moral universe. God's will triumphs in hell as well as in heaven.... As Paul expresses it, man's "falsehood enhances God's faithfulness and so increases his glory." (Rom. 3:7) (NIV) [xvi]
1. It is a place of eternal punishment
a) It is a place
It is clear from the abundance of New Testament data that the destiny of the wicked involves an actual place as much as does the destiny of the righteous. This place is referred to as Gehenna (usually translated "hell," Matt. 28:9; Mark 9:43, 45, 47), a word of Hebrew background (the Greek word geena ,is probably a transliteration of the Aramaic gēhinnām, which is from the Hebrew gê hinnōm, valley of Hinnom). It provides a fitting word picture of the place of final punishment because of its historical associations.
The valley of Hinnom, runs west and south of the site of ancient Jerusalem. It was the location of a cultic shrine where human sacrifices were offered to the pagan god Molech. During Josiah's reign he proscribed the area by defiling it. (see 2 Kings 23:10; Jer. 7:31-32.)
It later became the place where the refuse of the city was burned. By the first century B.C. gehenna had taken on the metaphorical sense of the place of future punishment by fire.
That this is a real place is further confirmed by the fact that it will house both body and soul (Matt. 10:28).
b) It will involve punishment (Matt. 25:46)
The various figures of speech used to describe the experience of this place reinforce the reality and horror of the punishment.
It is referred to as a "furnace of fire" (Matt. 13:42; 50); a "lake of fire and sulfur" (Rev. 19:20; 20:10, 14-15; 21:8); and many times with the word "fire" modified by such terms as eternal, unquenchable, etc. (Matt. 18:8-9; Mark 9:43,47-48; Rev. 14:10-11). At the same time, it may be described as "outer" and "black darkness" (Matt. 25:30; Jude 13).
In straightforward language it is said to involve God's wrath and anger (Rom. 2:8; cf. John 3:36); torment (Rev. 14:10-11); weeping and gnashing of teeth, that is, extreme pain (Matt. 13:42; 25:30); the perennial absence of rest (Rev. 14:11); and a condition that may be described as destruction or perdition (Matt. 10:28; John 3:16; 10:28; Rom. 2:12; 1 Cor. 1:18; Phil. 3:19; 2 Pet. 3:7). Each of these passages contains either the verb appollumi or the noun apōleia (destroy, perish; destruction, perdition).
These terms refer to the ruin and loss that comes with separation from God, the source of life. Albrecht Oepke, commenting on the verb, states, "In contrast to sōzesthai [to be saved), zōē aiōnos [eternal life) apollusthai is, definitive destruction, not merely in the sense of physical existence, but rather of an eternal plunge into Hades and a hopeless destiny of death...." [xvii]
Later on, referring to the use of apōleia in Revelation 17:8, 11, he says, "What is meant here is not a simple extinction of existence..., but an everlasting state of torment and death." [xviii]
Several other terms, found in 2 Thessalonians 1:6-9, give insight into this subject as well. The term olethros, used in verse nine, may be translated "destruction" but "ruin" may be a more nearly accurate meaning.
Milligan, commenting on this word, writes, "... while not necessarily implying annihilation (cf. 1 Cor. 5:5), [olethros] carries with it the thought of utter and hopeless ruin, the loss of all that gives worth to existence...." [xix]
In his discussion of 1 Thessalonians 5:3, where this term is also used, Frame writes, "It is probable that olethros, like thanatos (2 Cor. 2:15; 7:10) and apōleia (2 Thess. 2:10; 1 Cor. 1:18; 2 Cor. 2:15; Phil. 1:28) is the opposite of sōtēria; and that the point is not annihilation of existence but separation from the presence of Christ; hence olethros may be aiōnos [eternal] (2 Thess. 1:9) as well as aiphnidios [sudden]." [xx] Finally, it must not be overlooked that this ruin involves God's retributive justice. The verb "repay" (antapodidōmi) of 2 Thessalonians 1:6 means to give back in return, while "retribution" in verse eight (NASB) means full punishment (ekdikēsis).
c) It will be eternal
While many try to modify the force of truth by advocating annihilation or conditional immortality (see earlier discussion in chapter 49), the biblical data indicates otherwise. As Hodge wisely observed,
It is obvious that this is a question which can be decided only by divine revelation. No one can reasonably presume to decide how long the wicked are to suffer for their sins upon any general principles of right and wrong. The conditions of the problem are not within our grasp.
What the infinitely wise and good God may see fit to do with his creatures; or what the exigencies of a government embracing the whole universe and continuing throughout eternal ages, may demand, it is not for such worms of the dust as we are to determine.
If we believe the Bible to be the Word of God, all we have to do is to ascertain what it teaches on this subject, and humbly submit. [xxi]
The English word "eternal," as found in the New Testament, is usually the translation of the Greek term aiōnios or an intensive use of aiōn in a phrase like tous aiōnos tōn aiōnōn (see e.g., 1 Tim. 1:17). Aiōn is formed from aei, always, and ōn, the present or “eternity” depending upon contextual usage.
When ios (an adjectival ending indicating possession) is added to aiōn we have a word meaning the state of always being or existing. Sometimes by derivation and contextual limitation aiōnos may mean "age-long" but its most common meaning is "eternal."
If eternal only means age-long, as sometimes claimed, then both God (Rom. 16:26; 1 Tim. 1:17) and his children (e.g., John 3:16) are only age-long as well. Note that the same term is used of both punishment of the wicked and life for the righteous in Matthew 25:46. Even John A. T. Robinson, himself a universalist, recognizes the significance of this argument. He observes:
The genuine universalist will base nothing on the fact... that the New Testament word for eternal (aionios) does not necessarily mean everlasting, but enduring only for an indefinitely long period. For he can apply this signification to "eternal punishment" in Matt. 25:46 only if he is willing to give exactly the same sense to "eternal life" in the same verse.... To admit that the two phrases are not parallel is at once to treat them with unequal seriousness. [xxii]
i. The fire of Gehenna is said to be unquenchable in Mark 9:43, 47-48; cf. Isaiah 66:24.
ii. The "worm" of the wicked is said not to die, Isaiah 66:24; Mark 9:48.
iii. The smoke of the torment of the lost is said to "go up forever and ever" in Revelation 14:11. This same phrase is used of God in Revelation 4:9 where he is said to "live forever and ever.”
2. It is a state of death
The final condition of the wicked is called a “second death” (Rev. 20:14; 21:8). It is so named because it is the exact opposite of the experience of the righteous. For the believing, following death and resurrection there is no more death, only life.
For the unbelieving, following death and resurrection there is no more life, only death. After the initial separation of body and soul (physical death) comes the final separation from God (second death).
This concept of separation is described by Paul as being "away from (apo) the presence of the Lord and away from (apo) the glory of His power" (2 Thess. 1:9). A part of the horror of hell is that it will involve eternal separation from the source of all benevolence. As Erickson reminds us, "If there is one basic characteristic of hell, it is, in contrast to heaven, the absence of God or banishment from his presence" (op. cit., p. 1235). The apostle John, writing of beast-worshippers, in the end-times, seems to contradict this when he says that they "will be tormented with fire and brimstone in the presence of the holy angels and in the presence of the Lamb" (Rev. 14:10). His emphasis is quite different from Paul's and he uses a different term (enōpios rather than prosōpon) which has the sense of "in the sight of" and thus identifies witnesses to this judgment. The emphasis here is upon the fact that the punishment is under God's supervision, while Paul underscores the intense alienation that the lost will experience. The solemnity of this truth is underscored by the writer to the Hebrews with the words, "It is a dreadful thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (10:3, NIV).
The extremity of the desperate plight of the lost in eternity cannot be overdrawn. The wicked will have full awareness by means of every sense of body and spirit of the unrelieved ("no rest day and night"), never ending ("eternal torment"), divinely pronounced and thus irreversible sentence of the judge ("vengeance is mine, I will repay"). They will feel the fire of unsatisfied passion and unsoothable physical pain; smell the acrid fumes of burning sulfur and the oppressive stench of spiritual death; see the smoke of their torment rising and the wrathful gaze of the Lamb; taste the agony of unquenchable thirst and the distress of unrequited longing; hear the sentence of condemnation and the unanswered wailings of the condemned.
Theirs will be a consuming loneliness and an unresolvable hopelessness.
When looked at it this way, one is not surprised that some have opted for universalism rather than accepting such harsh reality. The human psyche is naturally repelled by and naturally rejects such unrelieved horror. Calling us to sober assessment, Erickson writes:
What kind of God is it who is not satisfied by a finite punishment, but makes humans suffer forever and ever? This seems to be beyond the demands of justice.... The punishment seems to be out of all proportion to the sin, for presumably, all sins are finite acts against God. How does one square belief in a good, just, and loving God with eternal punishment? The question must not be dismissed lightly, for it concerns the very essence of God's nature. [xxiii]
Such questions and evaluations, understandable as they may be, when measured against scripture evidence a misunderstanding of God and sin rather than of the nature of punishment. As Erickson continues, he notes that "whenever we sin, an infinite factor is invariably involved. All sin is an offense against God [as David, the liar, adulterer and murderer finally recognized, "Against Thee, Thee only I have sinned..." (Ps. 51:4)], the raising of a finite will against an infinite being. It is failure to carry out one's obligation to him to whom everything is due" (ibid.).
The doctrine of the eternal punishment of the wicked is tragically yet irrefutably true. As we accept this as the wise plan of our graciously sovereign Lord, let us do it with tears.
B. The Final State of the Believing
To speak of the final blessedness of the saints as a state of being cuts across much of contemporary theology. Many insist that as in this life so in the life to come, becoming will take priority over being. Moving toward the goal is far more important than reaching it. If heaven is to avoid being humdrum there must always be growth rather than final maturation. As Erickson notes, "This assumption rests on process thought, the conception that change is of the essence of reality." [xxiv] One fallacy of such thinking is that it views eternity as merely an unending extension of time with the present and its need for growth and development being the paradigm for the future. "Frustration and boredom occur within this life whenever there is an arresting of development at a finite point, whenever one has stopped short of perfection. If, however, one were to fully achieve, if there were no feeling of inadequacy or incompleteness, there would probably be no frustration. The stable situation of heaven is not a fixed state short of one's goal, but a state of completion beyond which there can be no advance." [xxv]
1. What is the final abode of the righteous?
While the destiny of the saints is rightly described as a state of blessedness involving eternal life (Matt. 25:46) and eternal glory (2 Cor. 4:17), it is to be enjoyed in an actual place. “While placelessness may make sense when we are thinking of immortality of the soul, the resurrection of the body seems to require place. In addition, parallel references to heaven and earth suggest that, like earth, heaven must be a locale.” [xxvi] The important issue, however, in light of the fact that we are speaking of something relating to eternity rather than time, is not where it is (as one would locate a place on a map) but that it is, and what the nature of this place will be. This place is described as:
a) Heaven
The English word “heaven” (Heb. shamayim; Greek ouranos) is a general term used in at least three ways in scripture. It is used in a material or cosmological sense to refer to the physical universe or one aspect thereof. In such passages as Genesis 1:1; Matthew 5:18; 11:25 the phrase "heaven(s) and earth" refers to all of material reality and is a Semitic way of saying "the whole universe."
The term heaven, by itself, is frequently translated "air" or "sky" when it refers to earth's physical atmosphere (see Matt. 6:26; 24:30; Luke 4:25; 7:24; Rev. 6:13 in the NASB and NIV). It is also used in a metonymical sense as a surrogate for God or the divine name (Matt. 21:25; Luke 15:18; John 3:27; Matt. 3:2 and 4:17; cf. Mark 1:15; Matt. 10:7; cf. Luke 10:9, 11). Thus, on some occasions in later Judaism, heaven became a device to avoid direct reference to deity, a substitute word for God (on the false assumption that it would be blasphemous to speak or write the divine name).
Finally, and of most pertinence to our current study, heaven is used in an eschatological or other-worldly sense. In this usage it refers to God's abode (Ps. 2:4; Isa. 13:13; Matt. 6:9; Rom. 1:18; see also John 3:13; Acts 3:21; Rom. 10:6; 1 Thess. 1:10 which identify heaven as our Lord Jesus Christ's abode) which is likewise the abode of the angels (Matt. 22:30; 28:2; Gal. 1:8) and the eternal abode of believers (Heb. 12:22-23 cf. 11:16 and 2 Tim. 4:18).
Heaven, in this latter sense, is variously described. It is the place where God's will is carried out without question (Matt. 6:10). There Christ represents the believer before God, always making intercession for us (Heb. 9:24, cf. 7:25). The Christian is to lay up treasure in heaven to assure that his heart will ever be focused heavenward (Matt. 6:20-21) and it is there that his inheritance is kept (1 Pet. 1:3-5). Heaven is the place from which our Lord will come in blessing (1 Thess. 4:16-17) and in judgment (2 Thess. 1:6-8).
The striking thing about the record is that while we wait for the Savior from heaven (Phil. 3:20, ct. Acts 1:11) the emphasis upon our hope for the future is not upon our being caught up to heaven but to meet him and always be with him (1 Thess. 4:17; cf. John 14:3, "that where I am you also may be").
b) My Father's house (John 14:2-3)
"In John 14:2-3 Jesus' promise to come for believers in this age is seen to follow His present activity of preparing many abiding places which together make up one place called by Jesus 'My Father's house' (cf. Rev. 21:3)." [xxvii]
The translation of the Authorized Version that has the Father's house made up of many "mansions" is most inappropriate today because of the contemporary connotation it carries. It is derived from the Latin term mansio meaning a dwelling which is a much more fitting sense for the Greek term. "The word monai (dwelling places) puts emphasis upon the permanence of these dwellings, [xxviii] while the plural number shows that individual provision will be made for all the Father's children. It must not be overlooked, however, that they are all together in one place. Thus the picture is of each child having a suite of rooms in the Father's house. All will be with the Father, enjoying His hospitality and sharing His love." [xxix]
This is where Christ, who has a real glorified body, will be and where we, who will have real glorified bodies, will be with him (Phil. 3:20-21). This, then, will be a place where God's child is "home," where he/she "belongs."
c) The holy city, New Jerusalem (Rev. 3:12; 21:2, 10; see also Heb. 11:10, 16; 12:22-24; 13:14)
This city is new in that it is a part of the new order (Rev. 21:1, 5) rather than the present one. It is heavenly in that it is set apart for the righteous alone (Rev. 21:27). It is heavenly in that its point of origin is heaven not earth (Rev. 21:2, 10). It is the city of our God since its architect and builder is God (Heb. 11:10) rather than man. It is radiant as a bride on her wedding day (Rev. 21:2) in contrast to the debased and morally decadent city of man (Rev. 18). This bride-like city
... will be walled with perpetually open gates, which provide unbroken access (cf. Rev. 21:25); and she will have a twelvefold foundation named for the apostles. The beauty of the city is likened to various precious and semi-precious stones and metals, with the overall visual impact being that it is made of gold so pure that it is transparent as glass. She will be crowned with a radiant tiara formed by the glory of God, which lightens the city (Rev. 21:23; cf. 21:25; 22:5; Isa.60:19-20). Her center of worship will not be a building but the persons of God and the Lamb (Rev. 21:22). Her needs for both physical and spiritual sustenance will be met with an endless supply of drink (Rev. 22:1), food (22:2; cf. Ezek. 47:12), and health care (22:2). There will be no crime, evildoing, or curse in the city (Rev. 21:27; 22:3a; cf. Zech. 14:11), and the center of authority will be identified with the center of worship (Rev. 22:3; ct. 21:22). [xxx]
This, then, will be a place where God's children live in community; where life is enjoyed with those of like faith and interests.
2. Where is the final abode of the righteous?
There is little question that the final and eternal abode of the righteous is the New Jerusalem. But, where will it be located? Both Isaiah and John (Isa. 65:17-19; Rev. 21:1-2) relate it to the new heaven and new earth while John (Rev. 21:2, 10) describes it as coming down out of heaven from God.
All of this strongly suggests that the New Jerusalem is a part of the renovated earth. Ladd is probably correct in stating “… that man's ultimate destiny is an earthly one. Man is a creature, and God created the earth to be the scene of his creaturely existence. Therefore, even as the redemption of man in the bodily aspect of his being demands the resurrection of the body, so the redemption of the very physical creation requires a renewed earth as the scene of his perfected existence." [xxxi]
Anthony Hoekema, who in his book, The Bible and the Future devotes an entire chapter to "the New Earth," argues similarly. Although we cannot agree with his identification of many Old Testament passages describing the messianic kingdom (millennium) with the new earth, his conclusion that the new earth is the ultimate destiny of the redeemed is an accurate one. He asks the question, "Are we to spend eternity somewhere off in space, wearing white robes, plucking harps, singing songs, and flitting from cloud to cloud while doing so? He then answers, “On the contrary, the Bible assures us that God will create a new earth on which we shall live to God's praise in glorified, resurrected bodies…. Since God will make the new earth his dwelling place, and since where God dwells there heaven is, we shall then continue to be in heaven while we are on the new earth." [xxxii]
3. When will the righteous inhabit this abode?
There are at least three views as to when the New Jerusalem appears and is inhabited. Some believe that Revelation 21:1-8 continues the record chronologically beyond 20:15 and describes the eternal state, but that verses 9 ff. are retrospective and refer to the millennial form of the kingdom. Others hold that the narrative of chapter 21 is continuously consecutive with the repetition of verses 9-11 (cf. v. 2) merely being resumptive of the interrupted thought following the statement about the second death in verse 8. A third view [xxxiii] calls for two separate descents of the City, one to the new earth in eternity (Rev. 21:2) and the other into the atmosphere above the present earth during the millennium (Rev. 21:10). Thus it is claimed that a needed heavenly residence for glorified saints who reign with Christ during that time will be provided.
It would seem that views one and three both suffer from the same problem. They are overly complicated and both textually and theologically unnecessary. The reasons advanced in support of these views are inconsequential when examined carefully. The text makes perfectly good sense when allowed its natural progression. Supposed incongruities (e.g., Rev. 22:2, "the healing of the nations," probably refers to the assurance of continual good health rather than to the remediation of ill health) are relatively easy to answer.
Likewise, the supposed theological problem calling for such a view is more imagined than real. It is assumed that non-glorified beings cannot have extensive association with glorified beings. This assumption then calls for an abode for the glorified somewhere away from earth. From this it is deduced that the New Jerusalem must be in existence during this time so as to solve this problem.
The fact is, however, that the suggested problem is no problem at all. The intermingling of glorified and non-glorified saints has already happened in the interim between our Lord's resurrection and his ascension, and this without any major problem. Furthermore, if any contact is maintained between the glorified King, glorified saints, and non-glorified inhabitants of the millennial period, the argument for" a special abode loses all urgency and cogency.
It would appear, then, that the simplest and most reasonable view is that Revelation 21:1-22:5 is a continuous narrative describing the eternal state. The holy city will be inhabited by the redeemed in eternity rather than during the millennial form of the kingdom.
4. What activity will occupy the inhabitants of this abode?
Very limited information is given us regarding the day to day life of the glorified saints in the heavenly city. Since we will have glorified bodies and since we will be in a material, earthly setting, it does not seem unreasonable to assume that one of the things we will do is enjoy the beauty of the setting in which we will live. This becomes all the more plausible in the light of the detailed description John gives of the exquisite appointments of the city (Rev. 21:9-11:5).
More explicitly, however, the activity of the saints in glory is described as worship/service. It seems quite clear that
... the inhabitants of the New Jerusalem will not be inactive retirees…. Instead, they are described as douloi, bond-servants, submissive to their Master's will. Their service will take the form of worship [the verb is latreurō which is always used in the New Testament of divine service, worship] and reigning under the ultimate sovereignty of God and the Lamb (cf. Rev. 22:3, 5). While the statement 'and they shall reign forever and ever' may simply be another way of saying 'and they shall live like kings,' in light of the purposiveness of all the other programs of God it would seem that there is more involved. We are not told over whom or what we shall reign; but it must be remembered that in addition to the Holy City with its millions, there will be the new heaven and new earth to be administered." [xxxiv]
An example of this kind of activity is seen in Revelation 21:24, 26 where John states that "the kings of the earth will bring their glory into [the city where God and the Lamb are the temple, focus of worship] … and they shall bring the glory and honor of the nations into it....”
Other examples of the worship that are associated with heaven, and hence it would seem anticipative of the heavenly Jerusalem, are found in the several hymn settings throughout the Apocalypse.
The Apocalypse is filled with the music of heaven. In the unit composed of Revelation 4-5 alone there are six songs, with several others spread throughout the book. Angels are involved in five of these six songs, and there is a discernable progression and crescendo from individual groups to the joining of two and three choirs until at the end of Revelation 5 the combined choirs of the universe are singing and an antiphonal "Amen" is being rendered by the four living creatures.
The first song, one of pure adoration (Rev. 4:6-9), is sung by the four living creatures (cf. Ezek. 1:5-10; 10:14). It offers praise, honor, and thanks to God for His perfection of holiness, omnipotence, and eterna1ity and thus is a worship hymn centered in God Himself. The second song, which is a companion to the first and is provoked by it, is [also] … a song of adoration, but it is sung by the twenty-four elders. They ascribe glory, honor, and power to God for his works of creation and providence and thus provide a compliment to the song of the living creatures—the latter being in praise of His person and this being in praise of His works.
The next song, which is designated as a new song (cf. Psalms 33:3; 40:3; 96:1-6; 98:1-3; 144:9; Isa. 42:10; Rev. 14:3), is sung by these first two groups combined. It is addressed to the Lamb, and its topic is His worthiness to inaugurate the consummation of all things (Rev. 5:8-20). It takes the form of a hymn of praise for His works of redemption and sanctification.
In the fourth song, the living creatures are joined by numberless angels (Rev. 5:11-12; cf. 1 Chron. 29:10-13) to sing a song of honor to the resurrected Lamb, who is worthy to assume His sovereign rights as Lord of the universe. It involves the ascription to Him of power, riches, wisdom, might, honor glory, and blessing.
The fifth and sixth songs are actually two parts of a grand cosmic chorale that includes a doxology, or song of glory, and an amen that is repeated as a refrain by a quartet from the larger choir (Rev. 5:13-14). The whole universe will reverberate with the combined voices of all created things as they sing blessing, honor, glory, and might to Him who sits upon the throne and to the Lamb.
The other three angelic choruses include another doxology (Rev. 7:11-12), which is sung by the angels, the four living creatures, and the twenty-four elders in worship of God. It is about those whom He redeemed from the Great Tribulation, and it is preceded and concluded with an amen and includes seven elements of praise, as does the other song sung by this same group (see Rev. 5:11-12). In this case the order is changed and "thanksgiving" is substituted for “riches...." The final song of the book (Rev. 19:1-7) is sung by the full choir of heaven and is said to sound like “the voice of a great multitude and as the sound of many waters and as the sound of mighty peals of thunder" (Rev. 19:6). It is a great hallelujah chorus praising God for His true and righteous judgments, His sovereign rule over the universe and the coming marriage of the Lamb. [xxxv]
5. Who will inhabit the New Jerusalem?
a) The inhabitants identified
All of the textual data suggests that the New Jerusalem will be the eternal abode of all the redeemed of the ages. Hebrews 11:10 and 16 indicate that Abel , Enoch, Noah, Abraham and Sarah, as representative of all the Old Testament saints, will inhabit this city God has prepared for them. According to Hebrews 12:22-24 there will be a variety of angelic, human, and divine beings living in the city. While each group is distinguishable from the other, nothing is thereby suggested as to degrees of privilege. In his description of the city John associates both Israel (Rev. 21:12) and the church (Rev. 21:14) with its basic structure, thus implying the inclusion of both Jewish and Christian saints.
Another indication that the city will be the abode of all the redeemed is the identification of the city as the bride of the Lamb. Not only is the city bride-like in its glorious appearance (Rev. 21:9-10) because of their corporate intimacy with their God and Redeemer (Lamb).
A comparison of 21:9 and 10 will show that the bride of verse nine is identified by John with "the holy city, Jerusalem coming down out of heaven from God” of verse 10. Revelation 21:2-3 show that lithe holy city, New Jerusalem, is a metaphor used by John to describe 'the tabernacle of God' come to be among men, that is, His people. The people so described and who will en joy the blessings of residence in this city (see 21:4-6) are said to be those 'who overcome’ (21:7).
John gives us a twofold description of the overcomer—he believes that Jesus is the Son of God (1 John 5:4-5) and he is one of the brethren who is victorious in resisting Satan because of the blood of the Lamb and because of the word of his testimony, and he did not love his life unto death (Rev. 12:10-11).
In light of the context and the last clause of Revelation 12:11 the second description of an overcomer quite clearly relates to martyred tribulation saints while the first description shows that Church saints are also overcomers. There is one final qualification, however, that must be noted. The tabernacle of God, which is the New Jerusalem, is said to be 'those who dwell in heaven' in Rev. 13:6. [xxxvi]
A collation of all this data would lead us to conclude that the bride, the Lamb's wife, is composed of all glorified saints of all ages rather than being a favored group of believers related to this age only.
b) The inhabitants' relationship with God
One thing that is made abundantly clear in John's remarkable description of the New Jerusalem is that God will provide for the complete fulfillment of every physical (Rev. 21:6, 23; 22:2), psychological (Rev. 21:4), and spiritual (Rev. 21:3, 22; 22:3) need of each inhabitant.
The repetition in Revelation 21:3 of statements indicating God's presence in the midst of His own people gives great emphasis to the intimate relationship He will maintain with them. They will be His tabernacle, the place of His abode (cf. Rev. 13:6; 7:15; John 1:14; contrast with 2 Chron. 6:18). They will be His people (cf. Lev. 26:11-12; Ezek. 37:27) and God Himself shall be with them. He will give tender, personal attention to their needs by drying every tear (Rev. 21:4; cf. 7:17), abolishing death (cf. Isa. 25:8), and removing every occasion for sorrow and regret.
They are reminded that God's promises are validated (gegonan [they are done] Rev. 21:6) by His own character, which is trustworthy and veracious (Rev. 21:5b; cf. 22:6), complete—to alpha kai to omega (the Alpha and the Omega) (Rev. 21:6b), and eternal (Rev. 21:6c)…. These promises... include complete satisfaction as a gift (Rev. 21:7a), and a reciprocal Father-Son relationship which defies comprehension (Rev. 21:7b). While false class distinctions will be nonexistent in the heavenly city a sharp distinction between believer and unbeliever will be maintained. Only those whose names are recorded in the Lamb's book of life will be citizens of or entrants into the city (Rev. 21:27; cf. 21:8; 20:12, 15; 13:8 17:8). [xxxvii]
Finally, two of the most profound expressions of the believer's blessedness in that day should be given special notice. Paul wrote of the incomparable "glory that is to be revealed to us" (Rom. 8:18) which is doubtless the glory referred to by our Lord when he prayed, "Father, I desire that they also whom You have given me be with me where I am that they may behold My glory..." (John 17:24).
Our Lord's Prayer and the apostle's longing will be realized in that day when we "shall see His face" (Rev. 22:4). At that moment, in a way hitherto not experienced, God declares, "I will be God to him (each saint) and he will be son to Me" (Rev. 21:7). Marvelous as it is, we can grasp in a small way what it is for him to be God to us. It is beyond comprehension, however, to identify how redeemed sinners such as we could in any way provide something for him. This is not a mere relationship that is in view. It is a declaration that we will fill the role of sons and daughters to our Father in some active and meaningful way.
One of the questions that is periodically directed to the teacher and preacher of eschatological doctrine is, "of what value is it?" Having completed this unit of study, that question may well be asked again. In order to answer, another question must be asked. What gives any doctrine value or worth? We tend to value things in terms of how utilitarian they may be. What benefits does a given thing or belief accomplish? What does it do? How useful is it? Approaching things from this standpoint leads people to the conclusion that such things as art, sculpture, symphonic music, poetry, classical literature and drama are of no value because they have no "practical use." Following that logic, of what value is an unborn infant? or a newborn? or an elderly person? This kind of thinking sets the stage for approval of abortion and euthanasia. Why are the unborn, the newly born, and the elderly of value? Because they are useful? First of all, and primarily, it is because they are Imago Dei. That is, they have an individual, intrinsic worth all their own (as with great art, music, drama, and literature). So it is with truth. The doctrines of scripture, since they are the truth of God, have an intrinsic worth of their own, as well, even before they are brought to bear upon faith and life. But then, in addition, what we believe does have 'bearing on what we do, how we act. It does relate to our behavior which affects not only our personal lives but life in community. Specifically, eschatological truth is intended to have great impact on our lives. The presence or absence of hope, both short and long term, has every bit as much impact as any other single thing in human experience.
A part of that hope is the believer's anticipation of home, a place in his/her Father's house, the New Jerusalem. In that day the grand design of the ages will have been realized. God's creative and redemptive purposes will have been fulfilled. The sphere of his sovereignty will have been extended throughout the universe and he will be everything to everyone. .
SOLI DEO GLORIA!
[i] Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, III, 1200-1201
[ii] Bruce Demarest, “on apokatastasis”, The Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, p. 67
[iii] Carl F. H. Henry, God, Revelation and Authority, VI, 506
[iv] Henry, (“on apokatastasis”, in TDNT, 1:392
[v] Henry, God, Revelation and Authority, pp. 507-8
[vi] Stanley A. Ellisen, Biography of a Great Planet, p. 232
[vii] See G. Abbott-Smith, A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament, p. 463; J. H. Moulton, A Grammar of New Testament Greek; 163, agrees that this is best understood as being middle in meaning but is not willing to accept the reflexive idea.
[viii] See "St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians," G. G. Findley, The Expositor's Greek Testament, W. Robertson Nicoll, editor, II, 929 and F. Godet, Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians, II, 368.
[ix] Ellison, op. cit., p. 233
[x] Origen, De principiis 1.6.2; 3.6.3
[xi] (See e.g., Nels F. S. Fere, The Christian Understanding of God, p. 246; John A. T. Robinson, In the End God, pp. 119-33, makes an extended case for universalism
[xii] See e.g., Karl Rahner, Theological Investigations, 4, 273
[xiii] Donald Bloesch, Essentials of Evangelical Theology, II, 221
[xiv] Ibid. p. 220; Bloesch bases his comments on a statement by Barth such as, "God has set up the kingdom of His covenant of grace with man in such a way that He has now finally and efficaciously translated man into His kingdom in the person of His only Son." In typical Barthian fashion he seems to give with one hand what he takes away with the other. In the above quoted passage as well as II, 2, 693 he affirms universalism; in II, 2, 496 he seems to equivocate; and in IV, 3, b, 561 he seems to reject an absolute universalism.
[xv] Erickson, op. cit., p. 1236; Leon Morris, The Biblical Doctrine of Judgment, p. 66
[xvi] Bloesch, op. cit., p. 226
[xvii] Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Gerhard Kittel, editor, I, 396
[xviii] Ibid., p. 397
[xix] George Milligan, St. Paul's Epistles to the Thessalonians, p. 65; see also J. H. Moulton and G. Milligan, The Vocabulary of the Greek Testament, p. 445
[xx] James E. Frame, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul to the Thessalonians, p. 182
[xxi] Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology, III, 870
[xxii] John A. T. Robinson, In the End, God, p. 131
[xxiii] Erickson, op. cit., p. 1239
[xxiv] Ibid., p. 1232
[xxv] Ibid., p. 1233
[xxvi] Ibid., p. 1231
[xxvii] W. Robert Cook, The Theology of John, p. 229
[xxviii] See Leon Morris, The Gospel According to John, p. 638
[xxix] Cook, op. cit., pp. 229-30
[xxx] Ibid., 830 pp.239-40
[xxxi] George Ladd, A Theology of the New Testament, p. 631
[xxxii] Hoekema, op. cit., p. 274
[xxxiii] See Walvoord, The Millennial Kingdom, p. 328; Pentecost, Things to Come, pp. 572-80
[xxxiv] Cook. op. cit., p. 241
[xxxv] Ibid., pp. 246-48
[xxxvi]Ibid., p. 167
[xxxvii] Ibid., pp. 240-41
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12.13.07