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BY THE AUTHOR
Dr. W. Robert Cook, Th.D
And if thou be not in the kingdom of Christ it is certain that
thou belongest to the kingdom of Satan,
which is this evil world.
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
APOLLYON. When came you and whither are you bound?
CHRISTIAN. I AM cane from the City of Destruction
which is the place of all evil,
and am going to the city of Zion.
APOLLYON. By this I perceive that thou are one of my subjects;
for all that country is mine, and I am the prince and god of it.
How is it then that thou hast run away from thy king?
Were it not that I hop. thou mayest do me more service,
I would strike thee now at one blow to the ground.
CHRISTIAN. I was indeed born in your dominions,
but your service was hard,
and your wages such as man could not live on;
for the wages of sin is death, Rom. 6:23;
therefore, when I was came to years
I did as other considerate persons do,
look out if perhaps I might mend myself.
APOLLYON. There is no prince that will lightly lose his subjects,
neither will I as yet lose thee;
but since thou complainest of thy service and wages,
be content to go back,
and what our country will afford I do here promise to give thee.
CHRISTIAN. But I have let myself to another, even to the king of princes;
and how can I with fairness go back with thee?
John Bunyan (1628-1688)
The doctrine of Satan is simply a more specialized consideration of the doctrine of fallen angels. There is so much revelation given about him that the subject needs separate treatment. In Satan we have the personal embodiment and epitome of evil.
Contrary to much thinking, however, the Bible does not advance a dualism of good (God) and evil (the devil) with God and Satan as equals. As Henry notes, "Scripture offers not the slightest hint of an eternal contest between good and evil, of Zoroastrian dualism with its eternal conflict of light and darkness, of the Manichean notion of God and Satan as two eternal creators." [i] While he is a powerful spirit, the terror of good, a ravenous, roaring lion who is the enemy of God and God's people, he is nonetheless a creature accountable to his Creator and within the governing control of divine providence.
Satan is never presented as a principle of primordial evil. He is neither a wholly independent force nor in any sense eternally coexistent with God. The titles "god" and "prince of this world" depict Satan's relationship to the cosmos only insofar as it is ethically separated from Christ. Evil breeds its own suffering, and moves the world inexorably toward chaos. God uses Satan's acts to advance his own purposes and to destroy the demonic powers. In no way, therefore, is Satan's reality a threat to the doctrine of monotheism; the demons themselves know that God is one, and tremble before him (James 2:19). [ii]
One of Satan's favorite ploys is to bring mankind to the point of denying his existence thereby making it easier for him to establish his kingdom. This doctrine of scripture has been ridiculed, denied, caricatured and perverted in many ways. The Bible unequivocally, however, affirms his reality.
It is established by the testimony of Christ throughout the Gospels (for example, John 14:30; Luke 10:18). Because of Christ's clear witness to Satan's existence various explanations of his comments have been offered. Some have held that he was merely accommodating himself to a culture that superstitiously clung to such a belief. Henry points out the problem with this explanation:
From his resistance to satanic temptation in the wilderness through the commissioning of disciples whose task included the exorcising of demons in his name, Jesus portrays Messiah's work as the reversal and defeat of Satan's malevolence. If Jesus perpetuated a religious tradition that he knew to be false, how could he be exonerated from the charge of deception, especially since he depicted his entire mission to be the redemptive overthrow of Satan. [iii]
Others have accused him of ignorance stating that he did not know that evil spirits really do not exist. This thinking, too, is fraught with danger and calls for a higher price to be paid than its advocates may care to pay.
If Jesus was so ignorant of the nature of evil that he misinterpreted impersonal influences as the personal existence of Satan, then why may he not have been equally mistaken in connecting the sense of good with the reality of a personal God and, more than that, with the Father of whom he spoke so intimately as deliverer from the Evil One? [iv]
It is established many other scriptures (see below).
Ezekiel 28:13, 15 establishes that he is a creature and, therefore, while he is super-human he is not divine; while he is very powerful he is not omnipotent; he has a large sphere of influence but on a restricted scale. For example, see Job 1:12; 2:6.
He is en angel of the order of cherubim and apparently the highest of all (Ezek. 28:14).
That he is a person and not merely an influence is seen by the use of personal pronouns, by the use of proper names and titles (see below), and by the ascribing to him of personal attributes such as speech, will, and thought.
Chafer states that there are at least forty appellations (descriptive titles and proper names) for this creature, some of which are listed below and all of which give further insight into his character. [v]
This name is found in Isaiah 14:12 and was his pre-fall title. It means "day-star" and is accompanied by the title "son of the morning" (cf. 2 Pet. 1:19). The Latin term means "light-bearer" (cf. 2 Cor. 11:14).
This term is from the Hebrew shatan and means adversary, resistor (1 Chron. 21:1; Job 1:6; Zech. 3:1; 2 Cor. 11:14; 1 Tim. 1:20; cf. 1 Pet. 5:8).
This term is from the Greek diabolos which means slanderer, false accuser (Matt. 4:1; Eph. 6:11; James 4:7; cf. Rev. 12:10).
The Hebrew word means "shining one." The term also suggests subtlety and guile (Gen. 3:1; 2 Cor. 11:3; Rev. 12:9; 20:2).
These are Hebrew and Greek names, respectively, meaning “destroyer” designated as the angel of the abyss and king of the demonic hordes therefrom.
This term suggests his murderous and ferocious power (Rev. 12:3, 4, 7, 9; 13:2; 20:2). It is nearly a synonym for serpent. “The dragon figure is used frequently in the Old Testament and in other literature of the ancient Near East to describe the enemy of God (or the gods).” [vi]
The Greek term, ho poneros, suggests positive malignity; that which actively promotes evil; tending or threatening to produce death (Matt. 13:19; Eph. 6:16; 1 John. 5:18-19).
One of Satan's primary aims is to solicit mankind to evil (Matt. 4:3; 1 Thess. 3:5).
The term was originally the name of a Philistine deity. It means "lord of flies." The alternate form ending with -bul means "lord of filth (dung)." He is prince of demons (Matt. 12:24-27; Mark 3:22; Luke 11:15-19).
The three titles “prince of this world” (John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11), "prince of the power of the air" (Eph. 2:2), and "god of this age" (2 Cor. 4:4), are indicative of his sphere of influence.
Chapters 25:1-28:20 of Ezekiel contain lamentations voiced by God through the prophet over various nations. Beginning in 28:11 there is quite an abrupt change. God is still lamenting something terrible, seemingly related to Tyre but the things which are mentioned go beyond human qualities.
The description of the King of Tyre does not fit that of any merely human leader, but rather goes beyond what would normally be expected.
Other Old Testament passages apparently look beyond the external doings of evil men and view the very core of wickedness (for example, Isa. 14:12; Dan. 10:21). E. J. Young, speaking of this application of anthropomorphic traits to a demonic agent says, “Israel has an angelic ‘prince,’ Michael: hence it is to be expected that the prince of Persia should also be an angel." [viii]
The unusually large volume of space devoted 'to the city and leadership of Tyre argues that a special significance be attached to the material involved.
The fact that the Old Testament scriptures present so many prophecies which are apparently in reference to a local personage, but are actually fulfilled in the coming Messiah, suggests the probability that the contemporary King of Tyre prefigures the very real Satan.
Outstanding Church Fathers such as Augustine and Tertullian held this interpretation of the passage.
A change in titles in referring to the Tyrian ruler, as seen in verses 2 and 12, suggests a change in thought of the writer although it is the same human personage in view.
The symbolic nature of the passage reveals whet is generally true of the whole book: Ezekiel penetrates to the very heart of things.
In other arts of the scriptures Satan seems to be portrayed under suggestive titles. For example, Keil and Delitzsch say, “The serpent was merely the tool of that evil spirit, who is met with in the further course of the world's history under the name of Satan." [ix]
Apart from Ezekiel 28 and Isaiah 14, there is no clear revelation of the beginning of sin.
The description here accords with the portrait of Satan in other parts of scripture (John 8:44; 1 John 3:8).
A satisfying interpretation of the passage requires a recognition of forces beyond human individual in view is probably the King of Tyre indwelt by Satan.
It should not seem anomalous for the Holy Spirit to take the believer behind the scenes of human activity to view the source of a wickedness which penetrates the heart of worldly government in every age.
As to his character, he was created (verses 13, 15); he was marked by perfection (verses 12-15); and he was full of wisdom (verse 12).
As to his countenance, he was a creature of great beauty (verses 12-13).
As to his calling, he was anointed as a guardian on the holy mountain of God (verse 14).
He apparently had a will with the power of choice. This uncovering of iniquity in him was the beginning of sin in the universe. Note well it was in heaven (verse 15) not on earth.
As to his character, he is filled with violence and profane (verse 17); proud and corrupted (verse 17); and unrighteous (verse 18).
As to his activity, he is involved in merchandizing in rational creatures of God (verses 16, 18).
As to his judgment, it has an immediate, future, and final stage (verses 16, 17, 19; see below).
In this passage the King of Babylon is the representative or embodiment of Satan, the power behind the throne of this earthly kingdom. [x]
He is designated, before his fall, as "Day Star, son of Dawn," (verse 12).
He made the earth tremble, shook kingdoms, made the world like a desert, overthrew its cities, and did not free his prisoners (verses 16-17; cf. Isa. 42:6-7). 339
Note that it was intended to be secret but was openly known by God (verse 13), indicating that there is no such things as secret sin with God. Although at this point it was not as yet open rebellion, it was deemed just as terrible by God.
His rightful place was in the second heaven (cf. Eph. 1:20-21; 2 Cor. 12:2). While his duty was in the third heaven, his abode was not.
That the stars may well be a reference to angels is seen from Job 38:7 and Revelation 12:3-4, 7-9. He does have a spiritual kingdom now (Eph. 6:12; Matt. 25:41; Rev. 9:11).
He wanted to rule together with or instead of Messiah. The terms “mountain,” “congregation” or “assembly,” and “sides of the North” probably refer to “governments” (see Isa. 2:2); “Israel” (see Num. 14:10); and “Jerusalem" (see Ps. 48:2), respectively.
The term "heights" or "heavenlies" may well be a reference to the proper abode of angels (see Eph. 1:20-21), and the term "clouds" is often associated with the divine presence and glory, that is, the Shekinah (see Exod. 24:15-18).
This title of God (Most High) indicates that Satan's desire I was to be “the possessor of heaven and earth” (see Gen. 14: 19, 22). His sin was in wanting to be like God. This is one of the major clues to his working. That is, he has been and now is a master counterfeiter. His sin was not only the rejection of God's will but also the substituting of something else of his own design in its place. [xi]
The preceding four expressions of self-will all lead to and are climaxed in this expression. Herein is expressed Satan's chief motive and goal in all that he does. Together with this desire goes the desire to have the worship which is due to God alone (cf. Matt. 4:8-9; Luke 4:6-7). It is this to which Paul refers in Romans 1:25 when he speaks of fallen man’s propensity to exchange the "truth of God for the lie" [note the definite article] which he goes on to explain is to worship and serve the creature rather than the Creator.
Through the temptation Satan attempted to short-circuit the cross-work of Christ (Matt. 4:1-11; Luke 4:1-13). There was a threefold attack:
i. In the sphere of his manhood: will he act independently of God on his own initiative? (Matt. 4:1-4)
ii. In the sphere of his Messiahship: will he put God to the test? (verses 5-7)
iii. In the sphere of his mission: will he agree to receive the kingdom without suffering? (verses 8-11)
Two factors, from the divine standpoint, must be noted. This experience was faced by Christ in the fullness and by the leading of the Holy Spirit. The purpose was not to see if he could endure but to demonstrate the utter impossibility of his failing. From the Satanic standpoint, of course, the intent was to thwart the Messianic purpose by inducing Christ to accomplish the divinely intended ends by satanically inspired means. [xii]
Christ dealt with Satan at the cross as a part of His redemptive work (Col. 2:15; Heb. 2:14-15; 1 John 3:8; cf. John 16:11). Within God's wise purposes he continues to allow Satan to be active until the day of his final judgment (see below). Nonetheless, while busy about his nefarious work he "stands judged” (John 16:11). In terms of time he yet is a ferociously armed foe, possessing great power and functioning as a destroyer; in terms of eternity, however, he has been disarmed, has been rendered powerless, and his works have been destroyed.
i. He blinds their minds to the gospel (2 Cor.4:3-4; cf. [ph. 2:2).
ii. He snatches away the truth (Matt. 13:4, 19).
iii. He uses men to advance false religion (2 Cor. 11:13-15).
iv. He places evil in the heart (John 13:2).
i. He attacks Christians at every point of their faith (Eph. 6:10-18) although we have been adequately armed to withstand such attack.
ii. He seeks to destroy fellowship with an unforgiving spirit (2 Cor. 2:10-11).
iii. He seeks to corrupt the thought life (2 Cor. 11:2-3) especially through fostering a false Christology.
iv. He leads into sin--for example, hypocrisy (Acts 5:3); immorality (1 Cor. 7:5) pride (1 Tim. 3:6-7).
v. He hinders God's servants in their service for him (1 Thess. 2:18). For example, see Matthew 16:21- 23, as it relates to his attempt to subvert Peter's life.
vi. He accuses believers to the Father (Job 1, 2; Rev. 12:10). See 1 John 2:1-2 for God's provision for this problem on behalf of the beleaguered Christian.
i. We should never treat him lightly (Jude 8-10).
ii. We should recognize our position in Christ (Eph. 1:3; 6:10, 12).
iii. We should remember the indwelling presence of Christ (1 John 4:4; cf. 2 Cor. 2:14).
iv. We should realize that Satan is a defeated foe (John 16:11).
v. We should put on the whole armor of God (Eph. 6:10 ff.; cf. 2 Cor. 10:4).
vi. We should resist the devil (James 4:7).
vii. We should be alert to his intent to destroy us (1 Pet. 5:8).
viii. We should give him no opportunity for victory through anger or other sins (Eph. 4:27).
ix. We should be aware of his ways (2 Cor. 2:11).
x. We should properly employ the Word of God (Matt. 4:1-11; Luke 4:1-13), that is we should follow our Lord’s example and use the scriptures intelligently rather than merely as proof texts.
i. He is the enemy of God. (John 8:44; 2 Thess. 2:4, 9). As such he is opposed to anything that is of God.
ii. He is used of God to accomplish his purposes (See, for example, 1 Cor. 5:5; 2 Cor. 12:7; Job).
Satan promotes and enables him (2 Thess. 2:9-10; Rev. 13:4) as a part of his attempt to establish his own counterfeit kingdom in the end times.
Thus Satan's all-consuming passion… will seemingly have been realized. His messiah will have risen to the apex of power by means of a fascination induced by satanically enabled wonder-working; by spellbinding oratory; by revival of the cult of emperor worship; and by the invoking of economic sanctions. Here, finally, will be the realization of man's long-sought-for utopia, but it will turn out to be a satanic nightmare. [xiii]
He desires to destroy her through various forms of anti-Semitism (see, for example, Esther; Rev. 12).
Revelation 12 describes in very abbreviated form both the history of Israel as the bearer of Messiah and the satanic persecution that arises in relation thereto. The persecution is described as an attempt to destroy the Jewish race (vv. 13, 15), which attempt is forestalled by divine intervention (vv. 14, 16). In his frustration, the devil then turns to persecution of the Messianic Jews, described by John as those of Israel's seed "who keep the commandments of God and hold to the testimony of Jesus." (v. 17) [xiv]
He promotes evil through them and deceives them (Eph. 6:11-12; Rev. 20:3, 8). [xv]
Satan's sphere of influence may be variously viewed as a kingdom or a cosmos. His "desire to build a kingdom similar to, and with a view to the supplanting of, God's kingdom is repeatedly taught in the Bible. The various spheres of his sovereignty include the demon world, the world-system (cosmos), of which all the unbelieving are a part, and the as yet future manifestations in Babylon (the great harlot) and in the kingdom of the beast.” [xvi] It is the second of these aspects of Satan's domain that will be considered at this point.
There are three words 'translated "world" in the New Testament. They are aion, age or time period; oikoumene, inhabited earth; and kosmos, world as an ordered system, that is, the opposite of chaos.
The key term for this study is kosmos and as Leon Morris notes, “Basically the word denotes an ornament, a use which we may still see in 1 Peter 3:3 (and which has given us our word 'cosmetic'). The universe, with all its harmonious relationship, is the outstanding ornament, and thus the term came to be used of the universe at large." [xvii]
In the New Testament this original concept is retained in part (the sense of an ordered system) but to a large degree the positive connotation has been lost. H. Sasse notes this in his comments upon kosmos as “the sum of the divine creation which has been shattered by the fall, which stands under the judgment of God, and in which Jesus Christ appears as the Redeemer." [xviii]
Bultmann perceptively observes that “the delusion that arises from the will to exist of and by oneself perverts truth into a lie perverts the creation into the 'world.' For in their delusion men do not let their quest for life become a question about themselves so as to become aware of their creaturehood, but instead they give themselves the answer so as to have a security of their own. They take the temporary for the ultimate, the spurious for the genuine, death for life." [xix]
i. When used in an ethical sense kosmos may mean: “worldly affairs; the aggregate of things earthly; the whole circle of goods, endowments, riches, advantages, pleasures, etc., which although hollow and frail and fleeting, stir desire, seduce from God, and are obstacles to the cause of Christ." [xx] "It is civilization now functioning apart from God…. This system [promoted by Satan to further his interests] embraces its godless governments, conflicts, armaments, jealousies, its education, culture, religion of morality and pride.” [xxi] It is therefore, the way-of-life of this earth systematized apart from God; or, godless society under the control of the prince of this world, Satan.
ii. Kosmos is also used in a personal sense to refer to the men and women who populate this system as seen, for example, in John 3:16.
The control he now exercises is his by default for it should have been ours. This world will one day be under the control of the Son of Man who will return it to its rightful authority.
While it is usurped it is nonetheless real and when I he laid claim to it Christ did not contest the claim (Luke 4:5-16).
The word used for evil here (poneros) refers to active, death-bringing evil (cf. Gal. 1:4 where aion is used).
"for all that is in the world… is not from the Father."
Cf. John 16:11 where its prince is seen to stand under judgment.
The verb paragetai (is passing away)… is most descriptive. It is in the present tense and the middle voice, and thus suggests that even as John was writing the world was disintegrating from within. The middle voice almost suggests a self-destructiveness. At the very least, it describes a transiency that is totally out of keeping with and unbecoming to one who is possessor of life that is eternal (Cook, Op. cit., pp. 119-20).
i. It hates both the Christian and his God (John 15:18-19; 17:14; 1 John 3:13).
ii. They may expect attack from it (John 16:33; Acts 20:29-31).
i. As to the ethical system itself, he has overcome it in Christ (John 16:33; 1 John 5:4-5).
ii. As to the people enmeshed in the system, he loves the men of the world (John 3:16; cf. 1 John 4:9, 14; John 17:18); his Son is the light of the world (John 1:9; 8:12; 9:5; 12:46); and the life of the world (John 6:33, 51; 1 John 4:9). Also, the Holy Spirit was sent to convict the people of the world of their sin (John 16:7-8).
i. To the ethical system itself.
They are to have no love for the system or the things of the world (1 John 2:15-16). John's statement is in the form of a command and is comprehensive. He explains that "all" that is in the world must not be loved and then proceeds to de fine "all."
In essence he says that worldliness may involve carnality ("the lust of the flesh"); that is, the inordinate desire that arises from the flesh; avarice ("the lust of the eyes"), that is, the inordinate desire for gain; or pride ("the boastful pride of life, that is, the self-sufficient attitude of boastfulness arising from one's means of living (Cook, op. cit., p. 120).
ii. They are to have no friendship with the system or things of the world (James 4:4). Whereas the love that is forbidden in 1 John 2: 15 is agape (purposed love) that referred to here (philia) is more casual. Even this is forbidden in the strongest terms. One who seeks the world’s friendship is viewed by God as a spiritual adulterer and an enemy.
iii. There is to be no conformity to this age, (aion) (Rom. 12:2).
iv. They are to be victors over the world through faith in Jesus as the Son of God (1 John 5:4-5; cf. 1 John 4:4).
v. They are escapees from the world (2 Pet. 1:3-4).
i. Believers are sent as ambassadors to the world (2 Cor. 5:19-20), as Christ was sent of the Father (John 17:15, 18). The relationship of an ambassador is to the place from which he comes, not to the place in which he resides. Contrary to governmental diplomatic missions, the world gives no diplomatic immunity. God, however, does give us an immunization (Gal. 2:20), and, therefore, it is not necessary to isolate ourselves.
ii. They go to the world knowing Christ loved the people of the world and died for them (John 3:16-17; 17:23; 1:29; 1 John 2:2; John 4:42; 12:47; 1 John 4:14).
iii. They go knowing that the Holy Spirit will convict the world of sin, righteousness, and judgment through us (cf. John 16:7 and verses 8-11).
iv. In order for this to be true, rather than isolating themselves from one world, they must relate themselves to it with a balanced view of liberty and fear (1 Cor. 5:9 ff.; cf. 1 Cor. 9:19-22 and Jude 22-23).
The world is not something which can be fixed up, mended or reformed. Consequently, God is calling out a people for his name. The Christian's primary responsibility thereto is to testify to his grace.
At the same time he should remember that much of that to which the world lays claim, such as art, drama, the various fields of knowledge, the sciences, may be, indeed should be, used legitimately by the believer, if they are not over used. These things should be used sparingly because of their transitory nature and because of the nearness of the coming of the Lord (1 Cor. 7:31 and context). The Christian should not, in other words, rely on these things for his fulfillment.
It is now passing away (1 John 2:17), and will one day be mastered by Christ (Rev. 11:15; see also 2 Pet. 3:5-7, 10; Dan. 2:35; Rev. 17-19).
Satan's judgment takes place in stages. "In each case the sphere of his sovereignty is narrowed further until he is finally cut off from all influence on any of God's creation." [xxii]
He was cast out of heaven as to his abode, but continues to have access thereto (Isa. 14:12; Ezek. 28:15-16, cf. Job 1, 2).
i. He was judged at the cross (Gen. 3:15; John 12:31; 16:11; Col. 2:14-15; Heb. 2:14-15). This is the basis for all the aspects of judgment that follow.
ii. He will yet be judged in the middle of the Tribulation (70th week of Daniel) (Rev. 12:7-12). At that time he will lose access to God as the "accuser of the brethren." "He will no longer have voice in heaven regarding erring saints" (ibid, p. 245).
iii. He will be judged again at the end of the Tribulation (Rev. 20:1-3; 7). Then he will be confined to the abyss-for one thousand years.
His final and eternal judgment will be to be cast into the Lake of Fire (Rev. 20:10; cf. Matt. 25:41). Today the sentence of judgment has been passed but the "day of execution" has not come. At that point in history "his grandiose plans for being 'like the Most High' (Isa. 14:14) will be totally overturned and his influence over man and angel will be completely revoked. His punishment will continue without interruption forever" (ibid.).
[i] C. F. Henry, God, Revelation and Authority, VI, 235
[ii] Ibid., p. 236
[iii] Ibid., p. 238
[iv] Ibid
[v] L. S. Chafer, Systematic Theology, II, 33
[vi] W. Robert Cook, The Theology of John, pp. 243-44, ftnt. 4. See for example, Isaiah 51:9 and the Creation Epic of the Akkadians, sometimes called the Enuma Elish, in J. B. Pritchard, ed., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, pp. 60-77, 501-3.
[vii] The following material, in large part, is taken from Paul B. Clingen, "A Portrait of Satan in Ezekiel Twenty-eight," Unpublished Master's Thesis, Dallas Theological Seminary, 1954, pp. 10-12.
[viii] E. J. Young, The Prophecy of Daniel, pp. 226-7
[ix] C. F. Keil and F. Delitzsch, Pentateuch, p. 92
[x] Also see John 8:44 and 1 Timothy 3:6 which describe his sin as untruth and pride.
[xi] For further discussion of this passage see Chafer, Systematic Theology, II, 47-50; M. F. Unger, "The Old Testament Revelation of the Beginning of Sin," Bibliotheca Sacra, Oct. 1957, pp. 326-33.
[xii] For further explanation see C. C. Ryrie, Biblical Theology of the New Testament, pp. 47-48; E. F. Harrison, A Short Life of Christ, pp. 80-93. For a discussion of the related problem of the impeccability of Christ see chapter 31 of this theology.
[xiii] W. Robert Cook, op. cit., p. 207
[xiv] Ibid, p. 186
[xv] See Cook, op. cit., pp. 195-212 for an extended discussion of this work of Satan.
[xvi] Cook, op. cit., pp. 242-43
[xvii] Leon Morris, The Gospel According to John, p. 126
[xviii] H. Stasse, "Kosmos", in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, edited by G. Kittel and G. Friedrich, 3:893
[xix] Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament, 2:27
[xx] Oxford English Dictionary