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BY THE AUTHOR
Dr. W. Robert Cook, Th.D
Immortal,
invisible, God only wise,
in light inaccessible hid from our eyes,
Most blessed, most glorious, the Ancient of Days,
almighty, victorious
Thy great name we praise.
Unresting,
unhasting, and silent as light,
nor wanting nor wasting,
Thou rulest in might;
Thy justice like mountains, high soaring above,
Thy clouds which are fountains of goodness and love.
Walter Chalmers Smith (1824-1908)
God moves in a
mysterious way,
His wonders to perform;
He plants His footsteps in the sea;
And rides upon the storm.
Judge not the Lord
by feeble sense,
But trust him for his grace;
Behind a frowning providence,
He hides a smiling face.
William Cowper (1731-1808)
Is the God of reality sovereign in the fullest sense of that term in his universe and personal in his relationships with his creatures? Our study of God has shown that we must answer this question with a resounding, Yes. As sovereign does he have a wise and comprehensive plan whereby he ordains all things in his universe? And, again, because the one is true we have seen that the other most biblically and logically follows.
As this plan projects the creation of a spiritual and material universe has he taken that next step and objectified his omnipotence, omniscience, and omnibenevolence by actually bringing into existence a realm of reality apart from himself? Once more we must answer, Yes, for “The heavens declare the glory of God; the firmament proclaims the work of his hands” (Ps. 19:1).
The question we must now face, then, is does this sovereign God who planned so carefully and created so beautifully yet maintain sovereign control in his universe? Is he a provident God “who stays to preserve and to renew and finally to consummate his purposive creation"? [1] David has answered this question for us with the eloquence of a worshipping heart as he says
Yours, 0 LORD is the greatness
and the power
and the glory and the majesty
and the splendor,
for every thing in heaven and earth
is yours.Yours, 0 LORD is the Kingdom;
you are exalted as head over all.
Wealth and honor come from you;
You are the ruler of all things.
In your hands are strength and power
to exalt and to give strength to all (1 Chron. 29:11-12).
With a series of majestic nouns David acknowledges, rather than ascribes, Yahweh's greatness, power, glory, victory, majesty, dominion, headship and might; with a series of majestic verbs, in acknowledgment of this greatness, he forcefully indicates the acts of Yahweh who exalts, rules, makes great and strengthens. He is thus described not as possessing mere raw power but infinitely creative power; not only as the victorious conqueror, but also as the benevolent ruler; not only as surrounded by intrinsic glory but also as the provident Lord; not merely as being essentially great in himself but as the gracious enabler who !makes great.
The doctrine of providence affirms what David testifies in his prayer nearly three millennia ago. The living God everywhere upholds and maintains the created universe he does so, moreover, for the sovereign purpose and goal for which he initially created it." [2] Because of our tendency to be parochial and certainly because of our finiteness and our fallenness we have a very myopic view of reality.
This doctrine enables us to see things in correct perspective. It tells us that “… despite sin’s colossal disfigurement of the universe through creaturely revolt, God affirms the universe more than he negates it; his program is one of redemption not demolition, one of preservation not of destruction, one of renewal and not of obliteration.” [3]
Furthermore, this truth has immediate and salutary bearing on our Christian lives. “It means that we are able to live in the assurance that God is present and active in our lives. We are in his care and can therefore face the future confidently, knowing that things are not happening merely by chance. We can pray, knowing that God hears and acts upon our prayers. We can face danger, knowing that he is not unaware and uninvolved." [4]
In the midst of, because of and despite seemingly impossible pressure and overwhelming circumstances, “God's majestic providence encourages us not only to believe and trust but also to praise him. God who has already predestined and called his people to salvation continues to work out his purpose amid their seemingly contradictory and perplexing circumstances on the way to glory (Rom. 8:28 ff).” [5] As Paul states later in the same chapter, “He who did not spare his own 'Son, but delivered him up for us all, how will he not also with him graciously give us all things?" (Rom. 8:32). God will not create; God will not redeem; only to leave us on our own. The "not" of verse 32 was carefully chosen by the apostle so as to call forth a positive answer to his question. Surely, he will give us all things freely.
Introduction
A. Definition: General
Providence, in general, is “that continued exercise of the divine energy whereby the Creator preserves all his creatures, is operative in all that comes to pass in the world, and directs all things to their appointed end." [6]
B. Definition: particular
1. The ordinary aspects of providence
In its ordinary aspects providence may be described as preservation, which refers primarily to the being of all things; concurrence, which refers primarily to the activity of all things; and to government, which refers primarily to the guidance of all things.
a. Preservation
Preservation is “… that continuous agency of God by which he maintains in existence the things he has created, together with the properties and powers with which he has endowed them." [7] It includes care for his creatures as wall as care for the material creation (Ps. 104:24-30; Col. 1:17; 1 Tim. 6:13; Heb. 1:2-3).
b. Concurrence (cooperation)
Concurrence (cooperation) is"... the cooperation of the divine power with all subordinate powers, according to the pre-established laws of their operation causing them to act and to act precisely as they do." [8] (Prov. 21:1; Acts 17:28; 1 Cor. 12:6; Phil. 2:13).
c. Government
Government (special providence) is "… that continued activity of God whereby he rules all things teleologically so as to secure the accomplishment of the divine purpose. [9] (Ps. 103:11, 66:7).
2. The extraordinary aspect of providence
Extraordinary providence is referred to as miracle. It differs from the other aspects of providence in that it results from the direct exercise of supernatural power. A miracle is the accomplishment of an act of bona fide result within the realm of the natural by direct and- immediate supernatural means. That is, it involves first cause only without the mediation in the usual way of second causes. When means are used the result is different from the usual result of those means. A miracle is above the established order of nature. It is not a violation of the laws of nature but the superseding of a higher will and power.
3. The unitary character of providence
While God's providential work may be variously viewed as outlined above it should not be seen in a fragmentary but in a unitary way. “Preservation and government should not be thought of as sharply separate acts of God, but as distinguishable aspects of his unitary work." [10]
Even ordinary and extraordinary providence should not be viewed as discontinuous. While miracle is to be viewed as exceptional and occasional in human experience, when God so works it is always in keeping with his eternal purpose and should not be seen as exceptional in the fulfillment of his plan.
II. Manifestations of Providence
A. The Manifestation of Providence in Preservation
1. The basis for the doctrine of preservation
a. Preservation is first of all, a reasonable doctrine
“Matter does not have the cause of its being in itself. It is everywhere contingent, dependent, and changing it is not self-existing or self-sustaining. No force is self-existent or self-renewing, for everywhere force implies the existence of will that exerts and sustains it." [11] Furthermore, no creature, including man is self-existent else God would not be sovereign. He alone has life in himself (John 5:26) and gives life to all else that lives (Acts 17:25, 28).
b. Secondly, preservation is a scriptural doctrine
It is declared in a general way in such passages as Nehemiah 9:6: "you alone are the LORD. You made the heavens, even the highest heavens, and all their starry host, the earth and all that is on it, the seas and all that is in them. You give life to [preserve] everything, and the multitudes of heaven worship you.”
Paul declares, "He is before all things, and in him all things hold together" (Col. 1:17). The writer to the Hebrew Christians says that Christ upholds all "things by the word of his power” (Heb. 1:3).
There are also many specific statements in scripture where the doctrine is related to particular situations. God’s deliverance of Israel from bondage in Egypt and the subsequent celebration of Passover, to this very day, ape’s of God’s preserving providence (e.g., Exod. 2:23-25, 3:7-10, 12:14, 18). The deliverance of Shadrach, Meshach and Abednego through the fiery furnace experience (Dan. 3:13-30) and of Daniel from the den of lions (Dan. 6) provide dramatic examples of God’s preservation.
The entire story of Esther, who became God’s providential instrument for deliverance of Israel from wicked man, is a testimony to divine preservation as well (see e.g., Esther 4:12-16). Our Lord's testimony regarding the birds of the air, the lilies of the field and his disciples (Matt. 1:25-34), regarding; God's notice of the sparrow's fall and the hairs of our head (Matt. 10:29-31); and regarding his care for his sheep (John 10:27-31) are further assurances. See also Ps. 36:1; 37:28; Prov. 2:8.
2. God's method of preservation
As over against deism, which views preservation as a matter of divine detachment with the holding together of the universe being strictly a matter of natural law, and continuous creation views, which exchange any doctrine of preservation for one whereby God never stops creating, the biblical method is concurrence “in all the operations of both matter and mind. Though God’s will is not the only force in the universe, without his concurrence no force or person can continue to exist or to act (Acts 17:28: 1 Cor. 12:6). His power interpenetrates that of man without destroying or absorbing it. Men retain their natural powers and exercise them." [12]
3. The implications of the doctrine of Preservation.
i. "preservation is to be distinguished from the act of creation, for only that which is already in existence can be preserved";
ii. the objective creation is not self-existent and self-sustaining", and
iii. that preservation is not merely a restraining from destroying that which has been created, but a continuous agency of God by means of which he maintains in existence that which he has created." [13]
Rather than being “force"-centered, matter-or energy-centered or man-centered, preservation is God-centered.
4. Some practical benefits of the doctrine of preservation
a. The Regularity of the Created Order
This doctrine assures us that, within the bounds set by divine revelation (e.g., the return of Christ to judge, reward, establish his kingdom, etc.), we may take confidence in the regularity of the created order. We may, indeed must, plan for the future (1 Tim. 5:8) while recognizing that all such plans must be submitted to God’s will (James 4:13-17).
We may expect that things with a certain specific gravity when placed on the earth will not float upward and when dropped from above will fill downward. The Christian's belief at this point is not in a material or impersonal ground of reality, but in an intelligent, good and purposeful being who continues to will The existence of "his creation, so that ordinarily no unexpected events occur." [14]
b. A Hedge Against Anxiety
Secondly, this doctrine provides us with a hedge against anxiety. In Matthew 6:25-8, our Lord first gives a specific prohibition of anxiety. “Do not be anxious for your life, as to what you hall eat or what you hall drink; nor for your body, as to what you shall put on (v. 25). He argues a fortiori. “Is not life more than food, and the body than clothing?" The one who gave you the greater (life and the body) will surely provide the lesser (food, drink and raiment).
Then, with a series of illustrations and questions about the birds, the lilies and ourselves, he gives three truths to enable us to assess anxiety properly. “Are you not of much more value than they?" (v. 26) calls attention to the fact that God’s sense of values dispels anxiety. God cares much for the birds (he feeds them and notes everyone that falls) but he cares much more for those in whom he has imaged himself.
The next question, “which of you by being anxious can lengthen his life span by even a small increment?" (v. 27) reminds us that reality puts anxiety in its true light. It can accomplish nothing.
The last question in this series relates to the surpassing splendor of the lilies of the field in relation to Solomon's glory. “But if God so clothes the grass of the field, which is alive today and tomorrow is thrown into the furnace will he not much more do so for you, O you of little faith?" (v. 30). Since God so adequately provides for the things of time (flowers) which pass away so soon he will surely much more care for the things of eternity (human beings).
Now, in verses 31-34 Jesus set forth two principles which if followed will prevent anxiety. The principle of family relationship (vv. 31-32) reminds us that anxiety is a trait of the unbelieving whose primary concern is for the things of this life. This anxious concern for transient things is out of character for the believer.
Furthermore, such anxiety is unnecessary for the Christian since our heavenly Father knows our needs. If he knows them as a loving Father he will surely provide them (Matt. 7:11). Anything he does not provide either is not good for us, and is wisely withheld for our good and his glory, or is not needed by us.
Lastly, he sets forth the principle of priority. When we give priority to actively seeking his kingdom (the advent and evidence of his righteous rule on earth and throughout the universe) and his righteousness (the just principles which exemplify his character) two things will happen which will prevent anxiety.
i. No place will be left for anxiety when the King's business and character are filling the life and
ii. When spiritual things are given priority all these material things—life, food, drink and clothing—will be given in addition.
c. Not a Guarantee of No Adversity
This is not to say that the believer will not face adversity, danger and even death but rather that in each case there is divinely ordained reason for it and divinely provided presence and enablement in it (Heb. 1:27, 1 Cor. 10:13, 2 Cor. 12:7-10). “While the doctrine of God’s work of preservation is no justification for foolhardiness or imprudence, it is a guard against terror or even anxiety.” [15]
While we may not test him with acts of pseudo-trust or unbelief (Date. 6:16; cf. Luke 4:9-12; Matt. 4:5-7, 1 Cor. 10:9) we must trust him as a provident father. The doctrine is of preservation not exemption. Persecution and suffering may well come to the child of God. His providence guarantees that it will not prevail (1 Pet. 1:6-9; 4:12-13). The psalmist declares (Ps. 91) that there are times when those who “rest in the shadow of the Almighty” and “make the Most High [their] dwelling" will not fear terror or experience disaster; he also says, however, that God will evidence his providence by being "with him in trouble" and by rescuing and delivering him from it.
B. The Manifestation of Providence in Divine Government is the basis for the doctrine of government
1. The Basis for Government
a. Like preservation, government is a reasonable doctrine
It may be argued that “as a personal and wise God, he may be expected to act rationally as a good God, he may be expected to have the interests of his creatures at heart and as the omnipotent God, he may be relied upon as having the ability to accomplish all his purposes." [16]
Thiessen further asserts that “the universe itself bears evidence of God's sovereign rule over it." [17] As seen in such things al means adapted to ends, man's constitutional make-up, his sense of dependence and responsibility.
b. The Primary Basis for the Doctrine
The primary basis for the doctrine, however, is the express teaching of scripture. All things in the universe are under the control of God who directs them to their appointed end (Eph. 1:11). The specific biblical data setting forth God's providential government may be divided into at least four groupings.
1) It is seen in the realm of nature
The psalmist indicates God's control over the physical universe in such passages as Psalm 135:5-7; 147:15-18; 148:7-9. Christ set forth the same truth in Matthew 5:45 and displayed it in his several nature miracles (e.g., the calming of the storm, Matt. 8:23-27; Mark 4:35-41; Luke 8:22-25 and the miraculous draught of fishes, John 21:4-6). Many of the tribulational judgments of the end-times also manifest God's control over nature (e.g., Rev. 6:12-14; 8:7-12; 16:3-9). See also Joshua 10:1-14; Job 9:5-10; 37:1-24. This rule also includes control over the plant and animal kingdoms (1 Kings 17:4-6; Ps. 104:21-29; Jonah 1:17J 4:6-7J Matt. 6:26; 28-29; 17:27).
2) It is seen in the history and destiny of nations
The rise, duration and fall of nations as well as the actions of their rulers are under God's control (Job 12:23-25; Ps. 22:28; 75:6-7; Isa. 7:20; 10;5-14; 45:1-7, Dan. 2:20-21, 37-38; 4:17; 24-26; Acts 17:26; Rom. 13:1).
3) It is seen in the so-called “accidental” and “trivial" occurrences of life.
Such things as the fall of the lot (Prov. 16:33; cf. Jonah 1:7; Acts 1:23-26), the death of a sparrow (Matt. 10:29), and the hairs on our head (Matt. 10:30), are controlled by God.
4) It is seen in the personal affairs of human life
This, in turn, may be categorized in two groupings. First of all, mankind in general is under control of God as to birth, career and death (Ps. 139:16; Jer. 1:5; 1 Sam. 16:1; Gal. 1:15-16; Dt. 32:48-50; 1 Chron. 10:1-4, 13; John 21:19; 2 Tim. 4:6-8). He governs the circumstance under which all men's needs are met (Matt. 5:45; 6:8; Act. 14:27) and under which they succeed or fail (Ps. 75:7; 1 Sam. 2:6-8; Luke 1:52). He rules over the destiny of evil doers in both present (Act. 12:23) and future (Ps. 11:6) judgment.
Secondly, even the free acts of mankind are a part of God’s governmental dealings. Jeremiah prayed, “I know, O LORD, that a man's life is not his own; it is not for man to direct his steps" (10:23). See also Prov. 16:1; 19:21; 21:1; Exod. 3:21 cf. 12:35-36; 1 Sam. 24:10, 18; Ezra 7:27; Phil. 2:13.
Included among these acts are the evil acts of men and angels which are also part of God’s governmental working. “For the wrath of man shall praise thee" (Ps. 76:10). These include such things as the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart (Exod. 10:27), David's numbering of Israel (2 Sam. 24:1; cf. 1 Chron. 21:1), Satan's attack on Job (Job 1:12) and the crucifixion of Christ (John 19:11; Acts 2:23; 4:27-28). See also 1 Kings 22:19-23; 2 Thess. 2:11-12.
The relationship of God’s government to evil deeds may be viewed in one of four ways: [18]
i. In some instances his providence is preventive. God holds individuals back from doing evil they intended to do (Gen. 20:6; Ps. 19:13);
ii. In other cases his providence is permissive and he allows them to do what they wish to do (Ps; 81:12-13) Rom. 1:24, 26, 28; Acts 14:16);
iii. Sometimes God's providence is directive in that he determines the direction which the evil impulse will take although he is not responsible for the impulse (Gen. 50:20; Prov. 21:1; Acts 2:36: Rom. 11:13-15, 25). Erickson captures this truth as he notes,
God is like a counter puncher or, perhaps more accurately, like a judo expert who redirects the evil efforts of sinful men and Satan in such a way that they become the very meaning of doing good. We must recognize here the amazing nature of the divine omnipotence. If God were great and powerful, but not all-powerful, he would have to originate everything directly or he would lose control of the situation and be unable to accomplish his ultimate purpose. But our omnipotent God is able to allow evil men to do their very worst, and still he accomplishes his purposes. [19]
iv. There are yet other situations where God’s providence regarding sin is limitative or restrictive. He fixes definite bounds beyond which the evil doer cannot go (Job 1:12; 2:6; Ps. 124:1-3; 2 Thess. 2:7).
2. The implications of the doctrine of divine government
This doctrine also has significant ramifications for Christian living. It should help us maintain a much needed balance between piety and duty. The following items are listed by Erickson: [20]
i. “God’s governing activity is universal. It extends to all matters, that which is obviously good and that which is seemingly not good." This is the message of Romans 1:28 and should encourage us to look for God's hand in every situation and to seek for divinely appointed opportunity in every circumstance.
ii. “God's providence does not extend merely to his own people. While there is a special concern for the believer, God does not withhold his goodness entirely from the rest of mankind." An awareness of this truth should keep us from begrudging the favor enjoyed by the unbeliever, on occasion, which may well be granted by God for some unseen reason.
iii. "God is good in his government. He works for the good sometimes directly bringing it about, sometimes countering or deflecting the efforts of evil men toward good.” Since this is true it helps us to maintain perspective, to take the long view recognizing that the final outcome of thing is not necessarily clearly seen, or seen at all, in the shape of present circumstances. "God is not only in control, he is directing matters according to the goodness and graciousness of his character. Therefore the believer ought not to hold back from doing God's will for fear that some dreadful thing will befall him."
iv. "God is personally concerned about those who are his." This is seen in such statements of our Lord as, "But the very hairs of your head are all numbered" (Matt. 10:30) and, speaking of himself as shepherd, "he calls his own sheep by name," "I know my own," "My sheep hear my voice, and I know them" (John 10:3, 14, 27). In an age where the individual is increasingly dehumanized by computerization and other mass applications of technology it is heartening to know that while we together make up one body we are yet viewed as individuals by him within the body. “Now you are Christ’s body, and individually members of it" (1 Cor. 12:27).
v. “Our activity and divine activity are not mutually exclusive. We have no basis for laxity, indifference, or resignation in the face of the fact that God is at work accomplishing his goals.” The fact that in his time he will establish his kingdom in the earth did not keep our Lord from teaching his disciples to pray, “Thy kingdom come.”
The fact that God blesses all with sun, rain, and fruitful seasons is no reason not to pray "give us this day our daily bread.” The fact that modern medicine can prevent or cure many illnesses is no reason for us not to pray for our family's and our friend’s health any more than the power of God available 'through prayer is reason to neglect the physician’s skills.
vi. “God is sovereign in his government. This means that he alone determines his plan and knows the significance of each of his actions. It is not necessary for us to know where he is leading." On occasion (e.g., Abraham, in Genesis 18:17; Gideon in Judges 6:36-40) God sees fit to indicate to us where and why he is going to lead us into or through a given situation.
On other occasions (e.g., Job, who instead of receiving an explanation from God of his suffering was given instead a new revelation of God himself, Job 42:1-6; the disciples in Acts 1:6-7) he chooses to withhold his counsel for our good. “To suppose that we should be able to understand the significance of all of God’s leading and that he will spell it out for us through some means akin to Gideon's fleece is superstition, not piety."
vii. "We need to be careful as to what we identify as God’s providence." Or, perhaps a better way to put it since in the final analysis nothing is outside the purview of God’s government in one way or other, we need to be careful how we relate to that which God merely permits. We must not approve what God allows but does not approve.
The approval of the unjust or unbiblical actions of constituted authority cannot be rationalized by an appeal to Romans 13:1. Abortion, the practice of homosexuality, abridgment of God-given freedom of conscience, coercion for or against religious practices and beliefs, failure to provide care for the weak and the poor are not rendered acceptable simply by an act of human government. “The most notable instance of a too ready identification of historical events with God’s will is probably the 'German Christians' who in 1934 endorsed the action of Adolf Hitler as God's working in history.” From our vantage point their words seem almost incredible:
We are full of thanks to God that He, as Lord of history has given us Adolf Hitler, our leader and savior from our difficult lot. We acknowledge that we, with body and soul, are bound and dedicated to the German State and to its Fuhrer. This bondage and duty contains for us, as evangelical Christians, its deepest and most holy significance in its obedience to the command of God. [21]
With the benefit of hindsight we rightly condemn such an identification of God’s blessing with his permissive providence but we must be careful lest we be guilty of similar error in the name of Christian obedience.
III. The Means of Providence
In what might be called the external workings of providence, God uses natural law under normal circumstances. By those laws the universe functions in an orderly fashion to glorify God and provide for man's needs.
Because of the disruption brought by sin to God's universe, and sometimes for unexplained reasons, God on occasion uses miracles to manifest his providence, as well. These are selectively used by God and seem to be clustered at certain points in history such as the exodus from Egypt of Israel, the time of Elijah and Elisha, during our Lord’s earthly ministry and the time of the establishment of the church, and in the end times.
Also, occasionally, God uses angelic beings to accomplish his providential purposes (2 Kings 19:35; Dan. 6:22; 10:4-21; 12:1; Matt. 28:2-7; Acts 5:19-20; 8:26; 12:7-10; Rev. 7:1-3; 8:3-5; 12:7-8).
The internal workings of God's providence relate to God’s guidance in the affairs of men. Here he uses such things as biblical revelation, that is the written Word of God (see e.g., Ps. 19:7-11: Col. 3:16); human reason government by divine principles (e.g., Acts 6:2-4); Spirit motivated persuasion (e.g., 2 Cor. 5:11, 20); a sense of inner constraint or restriction which arises from intimacy with God (e.g., Ps. 37:4-6; Col. 3:15); divinely ordained circumstances (e.g., 1 Cor. 16:8-9); and dreams and visions (Acts 9:10-12; 10:10 ff.; 16:9-10: 22:17-18).
IV. The Focal Point of Providence
Certainly, as with other works of God, the entire Godhead is operative in the work of providence. Both the Father (Matt. 10:29) and the Spirit (Gen. 6:3: Luke 4:1: Act. 8:29; 10:19-20; 16:6-8) are involved in one way or another. The focal person of this doctrine, however, seems to be the Son. “The government will be upon his shoulder." (Isa. 9:6); “in him all things hold together" (Col. 1:17); “upholds all things by the word of his power" (Heb. 1:3); and he “must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet” (1 Cor. 15:25).
Christian confession of divine providence has specifically Christological orientation, however, since Christ is the agent in creation, preservation, redemption and judgment. It is this divine relationship to man and the universe that gives unique specificity to the biblical view. The eighth chapter of Romans which some scholars identify as Paul's hymn to the God of providence, stresses that nothing—whether death principalities or powers or anything else—can separate us from God’s love manifest in Christ Jesus our Lord (Rom. 8:39). Jesus Christ is therefore the Master Key to divine providence—a key which preserves both history and nature for the Creator's sovereignly intended purposes.... [22]
V. The Goals of Providence
Providence has both proximate and ultimate goals. The proximate goals are no less real but are only secondary and with a view to accomplishing the final goal. Certainly God preserves and governs his universe with a view to the happiness and development of his creatures. This is true for all mankind (Matt. 5:45; Acts 14:17; Rom. 2:4) but most especially for his own children for whom he provides both good (Ps. 84:11, Rom. 8:28) and growth (Rom. 8:29; Eph. 4:13-16). As Thiessen observes,
the divinely provided mental and moral development [of the race] is seen in various ways through the Christian centuries. It is seen in the elevation of woman, the erection of hospitals, the introduction of educational systems, the abolition of slavery, the granting of religious liberty, the development of technology. In such areas as communication and transportation, etc., these are all humanitarian developments, but even so, we must ultimately trace them back to God's providential government of the world. Though in themselves they have but a temporal value, they may be used as aids in the spread of the gospel. [23]
The ultimate goal of providence, however, is the glory of God. The happiness of the creature, his redemption and growth in grace and human kindness have more than a temporal value inasmuch as in themselves they manifest the character of God. The display of the divine perfections of wisdom, power, goodness and holiness transmute the proximate into the ultimate. “For my own sake, I do this. How can I let myself be defamed? I will not yield my glory to another" (Isa. 48:11).
VI. Theories Opposed to the Doctrine of Providence
There are at least seven views of the universe which stand in opposition to the revealed doctrine of providence.
A. Deism
This theory holds that God's concern with the world is not specific and universal but only general. That is, he merely exercises a general oversight of the laws which he has established. “The doctrine of a merely general providence is philosophically untenable and religiously unsatisfactory for ultimate outcomes often turn on seemingly unimportant details of history and life, and not even general divine providence is assured in the absence of the self-revealing God." [24]
B. Continuous Creation
This view holds that rather than a finished creation followed by God's continued preservation and governance, God is actually creating the universe anew moment by moment. This, of course, directly contradicts the biblical revelation that God has eased creating. Also, it makes all of God's working direct; it denies that he can employ means to achieve his ends." [25]
C. Pantheism
Pantheism does not recognize a distinction between God and the world. It thus eliminates providence in the usual meaning of the term. For the pantheist providence is identical with the laws of nature. He rules out the supernatural, morality, secondary causes, and the efficacy of prayer.
D. Panentheism
The panentheist (process theologian) holds that God knows the world as a place in which freedom, process and change are realities. For these things to be real and in order that God's knowledge of them be perfect his knowledge itself must grow and change. As new facts come into existence God comes to know these new facts and thus his knowledge grows. Since a perfect knower (God) includes within himself the object which is known, through perfectly knowing the world God includes the world within himself. [26]
In addition to the common error shared with the pantheist whereby God and his creation are confused, the panentheist finitizes God by making him mutable, especially in relation to knowledge. Thus, no place is left for a biblical doctrine of providence for a changing and ill-informed God is unable to preserve and wisely direct all things with anything but uncertainty and tentativeness.
D. Partial Providence
The partial providence theory states that God controls only, the larger and more important things of life, but toes not control the little things. This theory is out of harmony with the Bible which shows that God is closely involved in detail as well as the big picture, fails to realize that the little things make up the total picture into which the big things fit and fails to demonstrate that we can know what is important and whet is unimportant.
E. Naturalism
This is the theory that nature is the only level of reality. All occurrences in the world are due to the operation of natural laws. Man's happiness and success depends upon his knowledge of and cooperation with these laws.
F. Fatalism
This theory states that all things are fixed beforehand and nothing man can will or do affects the course of events. It depersonalizes God, making him an originating cause that is blind, impersonal and non-moral. It fails to recognize that God ordains moral means to accomplish his ends.
VII. Some Problem Areas in the Doctrine of Providence
A. Providence and Evil
If God is indeed in control of the universe how can the Christian account for evil, especially in the forms and proportions in which it is present? The doctrine could conceivably be stated in such a way as to avoid the problem but our statement has not taken that route. We are faced with the problem because we believe that providence is not merely general but specific and comprehensive in nature. It includes details and minutiae as wall as broad concepts. The problem is further compounded by our belief that God's activity in the universe is concurrent with that of mankind and spirit beings. He is not merely an aloof supervisor he is an involved worker. These truths which are the occasion of great comfort, on the one hand, in this consideration create great consternation.
Before any consideration of this question can be profitably made we must remind ourselves that the answer must be in keeping with and arise from all we have learned about God, his decree and his providence. Any attempt to resolve this problem from a strictly philosophical standpoint that is apart from revelation, is doomed to failure.
Rather than approaching the issue as an abstract problem let us put it in terms of concrete situations. How can a provident God allow an Auschwitz? Must we abandon the doctrine of providence in light of a holocaust involving the extinction of six "million Jews plus six million others? Or, what of the slaughter of fifteen million people by Stalin? Or, thirty million by Mao? Or, the Armenian holocaust perpetrated by the Turks? Does not the heinous nature and magnitude of these acts set them apart from lesser injustice? Can God still be considered great and good in the face of such barbarous deeds? From a human standpoint almost any answer seems callous and/or evasive.
Our problem lies, in part at least, in trying to approach this matter at the wrong end and from the wrong vantage point. This is not the end or even the beginning of the story. Before this must be answered the question, could a provident God allow the Fall of the entire race into sin? And, he did while continuing to be holy, just and good.
Would he allow the crucifixion of his own Son, sinless, pure, righteous, and eternal? And, he will while-continuing to be holy, just and good. Would he allow the future judgment of all mankind outside of Christ and their eternal consignment to the torments of the lake of fire? And, he will while continuing to be holy, just and good. The first part of the answer, then, is found in the fact that compared to what God has done and will yet do in his holy governing of the universe without being disqualified as God and King, these items do not seem so disproportionate.
Secondly, we must remember that overwhelming as these events may seem, divine providence did set limits on each one keeping the evil forces at work under control. While not apparent to us providence assures us that each event will accomplish the eternal purpose of God (see e.g., Exod. 9:15-16).
Thirdly, we must look beyond the circumstances themselves to God. The greatest thing is not the enjoyment or even the possession of life but the glory of the God of reality. To know him is eternal life which alone gives meaning to existence. Not to know him is hall whether here on earth or in eternity. Furthermore "God works all things together for good...” (Rom. 8:28) for those who love him. It is God, not things, that works and it is all not some things that are included. This passage assures us that "life is not wholly without meaning and value; if Jesus is to be believed, and he is, our prospect of blessedness is secure. Christ's earthly life with all its seeming tragedy demonstrates how we can confidently call God good and how we, too, may trust his vindication of the good." [27]
Fourthly, we must look beyond time to eternity. When viewed in isolation such incidents seem mindless and wholly without any redeeming value. When placed in the context of the entire plan of God their meaning will become clear. “The Bible repeatedly looks beyond the present in order to interpret the problem of evil in an eschatological context." [28]
Such events cannot end must not be looked upon with approval because they are demonic in their nature and in their fury. This does not mean, however, that God bas lost control or will not use them in his overall plan in ways that defy our present understanding.
It is only those who are removed from evil and suffering at least one step who ask theological questions about evils of the magnitude of an Auschwitz. Therefore, before we move from this subject we must ask the question one more time.
What about when suffering overwhelms me, my family or friends? What about the excruciating death of an only child? The immoral abandonment of faithful wife by an unfaithful husband? The dashed hopes of a god-fearing parent for a wayward son or daughter? The financial ruin of an honest business man in the prime of life? The indiscriminate onslaught of an irreversibly emaciating disease in your own life? Etc.?
When the evil is close to home and the suffering is personal must I abandon any reasonable belief in a provident God? Would a loving father, who had infinite power to the, contrary, allow his children to suffer so?
The answer does not lie in a rejection of the doctrine of providence, a finitizing of God. Such an answer is no answer at all for we are then left with the problem and no possible explanation. While such a question is a perfectly understandable and human one to ask, it is the wrong question.
The more perceptive question is, why has a God of holiness and righteousness not allowed ultimate judgment to fall upon a sinful world? Rather than, Why has loving God allowed this much suffering? The amazing thing is not that we are suffering but that we do not suffer more; not that evil is all around us but that it does not consume us. Let us join with Jeremiah the prophet who in the midst of his lamentation kept his vision clear by fixing his eyes on the faithfulness of Yahweh.
I remember my affliction and my wandering,
the bitterness and the gall.
I wall remember them,
and my soul is downcast within me.
Yet this I call to mind
and therefore I have hope:
Because of the LORD'S great love we
are not consumed, for his compassions never fail.
They are new every morning;
great is your faithfulness.
I say to myself, “The LORD is my portion;
Therefore I will wait for him” (Lam. 3:19-24).After an extended discussion of “Evil as a Religious Dilemma," Carl Henry gives the following most helpful summary of the problem of evil and suffering vis-à-vis divine providence.
i. Good and evil are defined by the sovereign Creator’s will and command.
ii. Satanic voluntary rebellion and its consequences for God's perfect creation together with man's subsequent fall and universal sinfulness have made cosmic disorder and suffering the lot of the universe.
iii. In his substitutionary redemption for penitent sinners Christ suffered injustice at its height and death at its depths but by his resurrection victory over Satan anticipated the final triumph of the good and the conquest of evil.
iv. Although in the present historical interim humans remain scarred by sin and victimized by injustice, the regenerate church is nonetheless a healing body that cancels sin’s condemning and enslaving power, moderates its consequences by prayer and the Spirit, and relates and relegates its legacy of believer’s suffering to a promised future glory.
v. God’s providential purpose and presence in history and experience subordinate all the pain and suffering of regenerate believers to a higher good.
vi. All the created universe awaits eschatological finalities that involve a new heavens and earth wholly free from suffering, sin and death where the sovereign living God will be fully known as he is, the god who brings to glory and holy joy all those who put their faith in him. [29]
B. Providence and Prayer
We have said that God is the sovereign governor of all things. If this is true how can prayer have any meaning? How can it be anything more than a psychological religious exercise? “On the one hand, if prayer has an effect upon what happens, then it seems that God's plan was not fixed in the first place. Providence is in some sense dependent upon or altered by whether and how much someone prays. On the other hand, if God’s plan is established and he is going to do what he is going to do, then does it matter whether we pray?" [30]
This dilemma is variously approached by believer and unbeliever. The Christian conscientiously grapples with it to resolve the apparent tension while the skeptic uses it as an occasion to ridicule the Christian faith. “Religious philosophers have often argued that both miracle and prayer are alien to a universe fully controlled by an omniscient God, since both would appear to involve an after thought on God’s part, an effort to compensate for earlier neglect.” [31]
Others would say that it is merely an exercise in catharsis or self-hypnosis whereby the person praying somehow affects the answer by self-change or by convincing themselves that something has happened. Christians may err in their approach to the subject by either viewing providence as though there were no need for prayer or by viewing prayer as though there were no providence.
The biblical data is ample to justify a belief in both providence and prayer. Since the former evidence has been set forth previously let us briefly remind ourselves of some of the biblical statements regarding prayer. Like providence, it is a truth that permeates scripture. Therefore, to negate either is to reject divine revelation. The Old Testament is full of the prayers of the patriarchs, the psalmists and the prophets as well are full of God's answers to their prayers. Our Lord not only taught his disciples regarding prayer and how to pray, but he also maintained a significant prayer life.
Paul exhorts the Philippian believers to “let your requests be made known to God” (4:6) and James affirms, “You do not have because you do not ask" (4:2). He later declares, “The effective fervent prayer of a righteous man can accomplish much” (5:16).
How, then, can these two strong truths be harmonized? To answer this we must first of all note what prayer is not. That it is not an exercise in intra-personal psychology is seen from the fact that the invitation to pray in scripture comes from the God of reality. “Call to me and I will answer you and I will tell you great and mighty things you do not know” (Jer. 33:3).
Furthermore, response to prayer is based upon the sure promises of God who cannot lie and is faithful to his word. “Let us therefore draw near with confidence to the throne of grace, that we may receive mercy and find grace to help in time of need” (Heb. 4:16).
Secondly, it is not a mere religious exercise. Our Lord addresses this misconception in Matthew 6:5: “Whenever you pray, you are not to be as the hypocrites.” That is, there never is a time when hypocritical praying is in order. Whether you pray in a public place, a religious gathering, with your family or privately hypocritical praying is wrong. Also, such praying has to do with the person before it has to do with his performance. The Lord does not say, “do not do as the hypocrites" but “do not be as the hypocrites." Praying is a matter of being before it is a matter of doing. It is the character of the individual that Jesus highlights rather than his deeds.
What is it to "be like the hypocrites"? Basically, hypocrites represent themselves as something or someone other than they actually are. Often, they do the same things that others do but as though they were someone else.
Several years ago, in a trip to Greece, I visited the ancient site of Epidaurus. Among the things I saw was a significant outdoor theater dating back to the third century B.C. It has near perfect acoustics due to the mathematical precision with which it was planned and built. It is said that all 12,000 people could hear the slightest breath or the tearing of a piece of paper from the stage without any amplification. As she was describing this remarkable site to us, I noticed that our Greek guide was continually referring to the "hypocrites" who performed on the stage. On occasion, as she would remember her audience was American, she would restate herself and speak of the "actors."
In many ways a hypocritical prayer is like an actor. Actors do things that those whose characters they portray do. They attempt to be like, not unlike, the one they represent. There is one major difference between the "hypocrite" on the stage and the one in real life, however. Everyone recognizes that the former is playing a part. The twofold danger regarding the religious hypocrite is that, on the one hand, no one knows when he is merely acting, or, on the other hand, that many may suspect that all believers are merely acting that way.
In reality, there is nothing out of order for a “hypocrite" on the stage to be “seen of men.” That is what acting is all about. It is the actor's intent to recreate before the viewer the character being portrayed. For the actor, success is measured by the degree to which the viewer forgets the “hypocrite” and identifies with the character of the one being portrayed. In the case of the praying hypocrite it is deceit rather than success that is heightened as the onlooker is moved to identify with what is being portrayed.
Then, Jesus says, “They have their reward--in full.” The actor's satisfaction is to be applauded, honored, paid for his performance. So it is with the hypocritical pray-er. The impression he leaves on his audience and their response of awe at his piety is his payment—in full. As much as he may desire to have that for which he prayed there is no part payment now in the form of men's adulation and part payment later in the form of answered prayer. In the final analysis, this kind of prayer has no relationship whatsoever to God’s providence since it is not prayer after all.
Thirdly, prayer is not a matter of talking God out of or into anything. This is the issue Christ was addressing in Matthew 6:7: “And when you are praying, to not use meaningless repetition, as the Gentiles do"—and has direct bearing on the relationship between providence and prayer.
When the hypocrite prays he is pretending to be something other than he actually is; when the pagan prays he is compelled by two false notions about God. He must first get his god’s attention and then he must convince the god of his need (cf. e.g., the prophets of Baal on Mt. Carmel in 1 Kings 18:25-29).
The Lord says, therefore, “As you are praying do not chatter on as the pagans do.” They think that in being loquacious they will surely get their god’s attention and then somehow convince him to act. Perhaps he will be worn down in his resistance or overpowered in his reluctance. Or, be may be somehow impressed with all I have to say. Having stated this, the Lord now makes an application of this truth by addressing his disciples: "do not be like them." Notice, again, that while doing may be implied being is in the forefront of his thinking.
What is it to be pagan-like? A pagan-like person is one who does not understand certain basic truths about the God of reality? He assumes that all gods are alike, and more particularly that the God of reality is like their false gods. Since their gods are often projections of themselves, they tend to have the same character flaws as their devotees. Or, it may be that their gods are actually evil spirits with the God sequence that in both character and function they are demonic.
This failure to understand the nature of the true God relates to prayer at the level of divine knowledge and what God does with that knowledge. Why not pray like the pagan? Because, “your Father knows what you need before you ask him.” Prayer is not a propaganda campaign to convince God of a given course of action; nor is it an exercise in providing needed information to a busy and uninformed deity. Neither is it a lever to pry things from the firmly closed hand of a Father who is reluctant to provide for his children's needs.
Does this mean, then, that we should not name our needs in prayer, but rather pray in vague, generalities? Not at all. Specificity is encouraged in prayer when I recognize that it is not means of alerting him to my needs but of acknowledging my dependence on him to meet my needs and thereby laying hold of his promised supply. Does it mean that we should not be persistent when our need continues? No. Continued expression of need is an indication of continued dependence (cf. Luke 11:3 and 5-8). Does it mean that we should not be bold in expressing our need? Never.
We should not be fainthearted in prayer because we know that God delights to act on his children’s behalf (cf. Luke 18:1-8). The picture Christ has given in Matthew six is of a Father who has just what I need ready to give me because he knows me so wall. All he awaits is my request; my acknowledgment of dependence. He toes not possess this perfect and prior knowledge to mock me but to enable him to make wise provision. Thus, prayer is a very natural part of providence.
If this is what prayer is not then what is it? In answering this question we may well discover the link between prayer and providence. The answer is suggested in 1 John 5:14-15: “And this is the confidence which we have in him that if we ask anything according to his will, he hears us. And if we know that he hears us in whatever we ask, we know that we have the requests which we have asked from him.” It is prayer that is “according to his will” which is effective and because it is according to his will it does not desire to change nor in fact change that will. Rather, it becomes the means to the end of its realization.
When God wills the ends … “he also wills the means (which includes a request to be healed [or whatever else we ask], which in turn presupposes faith). That is, God wills the healing [or other answer] in part by willing that those in need should bring their entreaties. Thus, prayer does not change what he has purposed to do. It is the means by which he accomplishes his end. [32]
This same truth is set forth by Paul when he points out that the efficacy of the Spirit's prayers for us may be traced to the fact that his intercession is according to the will of God" (Rom. 8:26-27). This, undoubtedly, is what the Psalmist had in mind when he wrote, “No good thing does he withhold from those who walk uprightly" (Ps. 84:11), that is, those who are blameless before the Law, who ask “according to his will.” See also James' statement about the prayer of a “righteous” man (James 5:16). “Prayer is not so much getting God to do our will as it is demonstrating that we are as concerned as is God that his will be done." [33]
C. Providence and Human Government
The next question we must ask is, if God providentially governs all things what place is left for human government, and if it is sanctioned by God what is the correct attitude toward totalitarian and oppressive governments? The Scriptures cast a good deal of light on this subject and must be considered before any conclusions are drawn. [34]
1. The Scope of Governmental Order
A survey of the Pentateuch will reveal that all the major areas of governmental order are provided for, with one exception. [35] The first governmental order given is that of nature. Genesis 1:26-28 (cf. Ps. 8:6-8) gives man an almost unlimited mandate from God in this area. The limitations subsequently given by the Lord still leaves man all the room for exploration, investigation, research, and invention he will ever need. The next order of government established by God relates to the family. God's intended order of man, woman, child, together with the reciprocal responsibilities, are clearly set forth in such passages as Genesis 2:18-24; 3:16; Exodus 20:12; 1 Corinthians 11:3; and Ephesians 5:25, 33; 6:1-5. In Genesis 4:9-15 (cf. 9:1-7) God’s order for society in general is set forth. Among other things, He is saying there is a definite sense in which we are our brother's keeper. God does not approve of social insensibility (see also such passages as Luke 10:29-37; James 2; 1 John 3:11-18; Galatians 6:9-10).
The last two areas of God’s governmental ordering are the religious (set forth in the Mosaic Covenant in Exodus 20:3-11) and the national (set forth in Genesis 9:1-7 and Exodus 10:13-17, especially). While these two orders of government are greatly expanded in the Mosaic Law they are summarily dealt with in the Decalogue. The original intent of God for Israel was that it be a theocracy (which aim will finally be realized during the Messianic kingdom) and therefore the national and religious are inextricably interwoven.
From among the many passages of Scripture referred to above, two must be given tore particular attention in relation to the subject at hand. First of all, Genesis 1:1-7 records the mandate for human government in a formal sense. It was given to man by the Sovereign of sovereigns.
This passage in its historical context was an integral part of the Noahic Covenant which was confirmed as enduring by the sign of the rainbow (9:16). Thus its injunctions should not be viewed as being only of passing interest or of past significance. In verses four through six, special emphasis is placed upon the sanctity of life and the responsibility of man as he governs to maintain it. The establishment of capital punishment for the purpose of preserving life and it is based upon the fact that man was created in the Image of God, an unchanging and unchangeable fact. He who in any other than an official way takes a man’s life lays profane hands on that which is divinely originated in a special sense (cf. Gen. 1:26-27; 2:7).
The second key passage to be considered at this point is Exodus 20:13-17, containing the sixth through the tenth commandments of the Decalogue. Verse thirteen in some translations read “you shall not kill,” and yet this is not at all a satisfactory translation. The Hebrew word, raw-tsakh, translated kill, would better read murder.
That this is not a blanket prohibition of all taking of human life is clearly seen by comparing Exodus 20:13 with 21:12 where the taking of life is not only condoned, but it is commended. The point of both passages is to emphasize the sanctity of human life—on the one hand, by prohibiting murder and, on the other, by ordaining capital punishment. The first instance is addressed to the individual while the second is in relation to the government.
The next commandment, “you shall not commit adultery," emphasizes the sanctity of sex and the family. It should be construed as equally applicable to both sexes in light of Leviticus 20:10. Since the home is the bulwark of any society, the significance of this commandment is readily apparent. A failure in the governmental order at this point ultimately will lead to the destruction of that society.
"You shall not steal" emphasizes the sanctity of private property. The significance of this commandment lies in the fact that the verb has no object. This means that it is all-inclusive in its coverage: goods, money, time, ideas, privacy, freedom, people, and so forth. The injunction applies to individuals, corporate groups, and nations.
In the commandment prohibiting false witness against one's neighbor we actually have an extension of the principle of the preceding law. It is deemed so important, however, that it is given status as a distinct command by the Lord. Here is set forth the sanctity of character. Just as things and people may be stolen, so may one's good name and reputation. God expressly forbids assassination with this commandment, which must be understood to include maligning of intent and misrepresentation of action (cf. Ex. 23:1). Our Lord's answer to the question, “Who is my neighbor?” as found in Luke 10:29-37, is most instructive in determining the extent of the application of this law and the next, which is also related to the neighbor.
Finally, and in a fitting climactic way, the Decalogue concludes with a prohibition of covetousness. All the way through the Ten Commandments there are two basic strands of truth which tie them all together as a unit. One is the absolute authority of the God who is doing the commanding and the other is the dignity of the man, who is Imaqo Dei, who is being commanded. The tenth commandment highlights and summarizes the second of these two strands. Covetousness may lead to another's harm, but it is primarily self destructive. This commandment, then, emphasizes an individual responsibility to maintain the sanctity of his own personal integrity.
Our Lord's teaching regarding government is both explicit, in the form of direct statement, and implicit, as seen in His attitude toward and relationship to the state. He urged submission to and practiced criticism of the government at the same time. The state was not regarded as in any means final and absolute, but He renounced any attempts to overthrow it, despite the elements of corruption contained therein. As Cullman puts it, the state is set forth as having a “provisional” character. [36]
2. Jesus’ Acceptance of Government
A number of passages indicate our Lord’s approval of the principle of government, (e.g., in John 19:11 he specifies that political authority is given from God), and more particularly that principle as evidenced in the then existent national entities (e.g., Matthew 22:15-22 directly acknowledges the legitimacy of the Roman state).
On one occasion, when presented with a case of very apparent social injustice, the Lord refused to enter into the civil dispute but rather left it to the proper authorities, (Luke 12:13-15). He limits His observation to the proper attitudes of the disputants, thus getting to the heart of the issue without meddling in the areas which would be properly dealt with by constituted civil authority. (This is not to be construed as Jesus' approval of or insensitivity to unjust financial or social inequity. It is simply that He is concerned about root issues, not symptomatic ones.)
In Matthew 18:15-20 (cf. 1 Cor. 6:1-11) the Lord suggests the correct way for believers to settle differences among themselves. While it is clear that He is saying that this is to be apart from civil government (this is, when the offending action may be properly described by the verb hamartano), it is equally clear that it is not apart from any governing order at all.
He urged the Jews to respect the constituted religious authority despite the corrupt and hypocritical ways of the leaders, at the same time indicating the importance of distinguishing between doing what they say and doing what they do (Matt. 23:2-3). The Lord observed His own teaching in the payment of the temple tax (Matt. 17:24-27).
On one occasion Jesus dissociated Himself and His followers from the functions of government and in doing so tacitly supported the existing government (Matt 20:20-28, esp. V. 25). Two possible erroneous conclusions based upon this passage must be avoided. On the one hand, some have concluded that Christ’s kingdom is exclusively spiritual, thus denying any literal, earthly, Messianic form to the kingdom purposes of God. [37] A correct interpretation of the passage turns on the recognition of the fact that God’s kingdom purposes are comprehensive and may be manifested at different times in different ways. On the other hand, some might infer from this passage that the believer should not become involved in the governing process at all. This, too, is to misconstrue the passage and the other teachings of the New Testament. The Lord is not forbidding the role of governor to the believer but is saying that when and if he governs it must be as a servant and not as lord. It is also true that the work of God, in a redemptive sense, is not done by government.
The locus classicus on our Lord's teaching regarding the state is Matthew 22:15-22 (Mark 12:13-17; Luke 20:19-26). Therein He taught submission, with qualification, to the heathen, totalitarian Roman state.
It is important to recognize the historical context of the confrontation which brought forth this teaching. Just shortly prior to this the Lord had ridden triumphantly into Jerusalem which act had strong Messianic overtones. His subsequent teachings had likewise been strongly Messianic. While His auditors did not grasp the deepest significance of the Messianic claims, they did recognize them in a limited sense, at least.
The Jewish concept of Messiah was of one who combined both kingly and priestly qualities. Thus the question regarding the payment of taxes to Caesar was highly significant. Although they were mortal enemies under normal circumstances, the Pharisees and Herodians found common cause with their common enemy. They were both desirous of destroying Jesus and felt they had at last found a trap from which He could not extricate Himself.
His answer to their question not only sprung the trap without His being caught, it also gave to believers the guiding principle which governs their proper relationship to the state as of God. The statement, “Render therefore to Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and to God the things that are God’s,” is at once simple and profound. He is saying that we are to give the state what it needs for existence, but as soon as it demands what is God’s it is exceeding its limits. That is, this is both a negative and a positive teaching, to give Caesar his due but to not give him God's due. [38]
As citizens of the State certain things, such as money and taxes, are due the state in recognition of services rendered and privileges enjoyed. However, to God also, and even more so, tribute is due, particularly the tribute of one's own life—one's entire person. As Tertullian stated it: "Give to Caesar what is Caesar’s—his image on the coin, give to God what is God’s—his image in man, yourself." This injunction is made all the more forceful by Jesus' use of the Greek word apodote (give back or render) instead of dounai (give or present). In this way Jesus was emphasizing that what we rendered to the State and to God are not gifts which we may arbitrarily offer or withhold, but tribute that is legally and rightfully due. If we are willing to receive benefits from Caesar, then we must accept the accompanying obligations and responsibilities. As someone bas phrased it, 'protection and patriotism are reciprocal'. [39]
It should not be overlooked that these teachings by Jesus Christ regarding the approval of the existing Roman state, which was not only heathen and totalitarian but also an aggressor occupying a land not rightfully its own, were given despite the fact that there were zealots numbered among His followers (Luke 6:15, Acts 1:13). [40]
3. Jesus’ Criticism of Government
While Jesus acknowledged the validity of the state, He was not uncritical in His acceptance of it. Wood gives at least a dozen examples of this, but we will select just a few for purposes of illustration. [41]
Our Lord was most stern in His censure of the religious establishment of Judaism. For example, during the last days of His earthly ministry He brought a series of damning indictments against the Pharisees (Matt. 23). His whole evaluation of the governing religious personnel of Judaism is summed up in Matthew 16:6, 12: “… take heed and beware of the leaven of the Pharisees and Sadducees. … then understood they how that he made them not beware of the leaven of bread, but of the doctrine of the Pharisees and of the Sadducees." In Luke 18:1-8 and 11:45-48, 52 He brings severe criticism of the legal framework and the courts of the day.
Public officials were also publicly denounced when it was appropriate. Herod's measure is taken when Jesus describes him as “that fox” (Luke 13:32), and the philosophy which he promulgated was warned against as well (Mark 1:15). Jesus disdainfully refers to the practice of the Gentile authorities calling themselves “benefactors” when in reality they are oppressors (Luke 22:25). He includes Jewish tax collectors “… who were public employees of the Roman government in the same classification as the heathen and prostitute” (Matt. 18:17; 21:31). The title telones came to be applied in a derogatory sense to Jews who were collaborationists. [42] The condemnation was not made because they collected taxes per se, but because they used the job as an occasion for dishonesty and exploitation of their fellow countrymen in the name of Rome. This particular aspect of our Lord's critical evaluation takes on a special significance in light of the fact that several of His followers were tax-collectors (Matt. 10:3: Mark 2:15, Luke 19:1-10).
A final word of caution is needed before this section is completed. Wood writes: “Because of the severity of his criticism of the State, Jesus has been interpreted by some as an anarchist who opposed civil government as an abuse. However, throughout his ministry Jesus was not condemning civil government but the evils connected with it. To those of good character who ruled justly, Jesus offered no word of condemnation or judgment." [43]
4. The New Testament Doctrine of Government
The apostles Peter and Paul are the two outstanding sources of New Testament doctrine on Christian citizenship in the epistles. They both give significant instruction and provide helpful examples for our learning.
a. Peter’s Principles of Christian Citizenship
1 Peter 2:11, 3:12 set forth the teaching that God's order for society is not anarchy and total independence but obedience and subjection. In 2:11-17 Peter discusses subjection in the state. His thinking is developed in five areas.
First, he sets forth the basis of subjection: a Godly life (2:11-12). He begins with a negative emphasis and a reference to the inward life. The exhortation is to hole yourself back from selfishness which will eventually destroy you. Next, he moves to a positive emphasis and a reference to the outward life. Let your conduct give evidence of the beauty of holiness. Thus, although you may be spoken against by unbelievers, they will end by glorifying God.
Secondly, he speaks of the extent of subjection: “every human ordinance" (2:13-14). It should be observed that this inclusiveness is in the area of the human (anthropinei), not t